Constructive Studies in 



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CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES 

EDITED BY 

WILLIAM R. HARPER and ERNEST D. BURTON 



THE PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE 
OLD TESTAMENT 



BY 

WILLIAM R. HARPER 



THE PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN 
THE OLD TESTAMENT 

AN AID TO HISTORICAL STUDY 



FOR USE IN ADVANCED BIBLE CLASSES 



BY 



WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER 

PROFESSOR OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES 
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 



Constructive Bible Studies 
college series 



CHICAGO 

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 

1905 




: 

OCT I iyu5 

^^7. <£<?,/ 9*6- 

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Copyright IQ05 
By The University of Chicago 



PREFACE 

This collection of studies is a partial realization of a larger plan 
which includes the entire field of prophecy, its scope resembling that 
of my volume, The Priestly Element in the Old Testament (1905). It 
has been found necessary to publish the first part, with the expec- 
tation that the second part will follow within a comparatively short 
time. These studies are intended primarily for students in college 
and those in the theological seminary, but they will not be found too 
technical for the more intelligent Bible classes in our best Sunday 
schools. The plan rests upon two vital principles: (1) That the stu- 
dent, guided by the suggestions made, shall do his own thinking and 
reach results which at least in a measure may be called his own. No 
conscious effort has been put forth to control the exact development of 
his thought. (2) That the student shall do his work upon the basis of 
the Scripture material ; in other words, that he shall study the Bible, 
and not merely read what others have said concerning it. 

At the same time, the literature of each subject discussed has been 
presented in detail. Only that literature has been included which 
seems to be most important and is most easily accessible. 

Arrangements have already been made for the publication of this 
material in a more simple form intended for students of high-school 
grade. For a more technical presentation the reader is referred to the 
author's Amos and Hosea ("International Critical Commentary," 1905). 

The Appendixes present some materials essential to an intelligent 
study of the subject of prophecy. They have been prepared especially 
for those deprived of access to the standard works on Hebrew History 
and Prophecy. 

I wish to express my appreciation of the assistance rendered me by 
my colleague, Dr. John M. P. Smith, especially in the arrangement and 
verification of the scriptural references, and in the references to the 
literature on the various topics. 



CONTENTS 



PART I. GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN 

THE OLD TESTAMENT 

PAGE 

Chapter I. — Content and Classification of the Prophetic Element I 
Chapter II. — Definition and Principles of the Prophetic Element 12 



PART II. THE HISTORY OF PROPHECY THROUGH HOSEA 

Chapter III. — Prophecy and Prophetism during the Period of the 

Patriarchs and Judges 25 

Chapter IV. — Prophecy and Prophetism during the Davidic Period 37 

Chapter V. — The Background of Prophecy and Prophetism in the 

Northern Kingdom 49 

Chapter VI. — The Product of Prophecy and Prophetism from 

933 to 800 B. C 73 

Chapter VII. — The Prophetic Message of the Early Histories . 82 

Chapter VIII. — The Prophetic Message of Amos 98 

Chapter IX. — The Prophetic Message of Hosea 112 

APPENDIXES 

A. A Table of Important Dates . . . . 125 

B. A Chronological Table of the Religious Life of Israel .... 127 

C. The Prophetic Vocabulary 128 

D. An Analysis of the Hexateuch 139 



vn 



Paet Fiest 



GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN 
THE OLD TESTAMENT 

I. Content and Classification of the Prophetic Element. 
II. Definition and Principles of the Prophetic Element. 



CHAPTER I. 

CONTENT AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE PROPHETIC ELEMENT. 

§ i. Preliminary Inquiry. — The study of prophecy is so largely a 
study of history that the methods of historical study must be adopted. 
This means, first of all, the arrangement of the prophetic material in 
chronological order. The basis of such arrangement must be sought 
through a preliminary examination of the authorship, historical back- 
ground, occasion, and purpose of each book or document. This 
introductory work must be performed either by or for the student. 
The difficulty of the task is, of course, very great ; its necessity is, 
however, in no way minimized by this difficulty. 

See on Hebrew history: Ewald, History of Israel, 7 vols. (1843 ff., 3d ed. 1864 ff., 
transl. 1869 ff.); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (187S, 5th ed. 
1899, transl. 1885); Ren AN, History of the People of Israel (1887-93, transl. 1888-95); 
KlTTEL, History of the Hebrews, 2 vols. (1888-92, transl. 1895); McCurdy, History, 
Prophecy, and the Monuments, 3 vols. (1895-1901); Kent, A History of the Hebrew 
People, 3 vols. (1896-99); Cornill, History of the People of Israel (1898); W. E. 
Barnes, art. "History of Israel," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible,Vo\. II (1899) ; 
Paton, Early History of Syria and Palestine (1901); Ottley, A Short History of the 
Hebrews to the Roman Period (1901) ; Guthe, art. " Israel," Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. 
II (1901); Wade, Old Testament History (1901, 2d ed. 1903); H. P. Smith, Old Tes- 
tament History (1903). 

Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, 2 vols. (1881-88) ; Wellhausen, Israelitische 
undjildische Geschichte (1894, 5th ed. 1904); Kosters, Het Herstel van Israel in het 
Persische Tijdvak (1894, German transl. 1895) ; Winckler, Geschichte Israels in Einzel- 
darstellungen, 2 vols. (1895-1900); Ed. Meyer, Die Entstehung des Judenthums 
(1896); Van Hoonacker, Nouvelles etudes sur la restauration juive (1896) ; Guthe, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1899; 2d ed. 1901); Piepenbring, Histoire du peuple 
d 1 Israel (1898); Stade, Die Entstehung des Volkes Israel (1899); Lohr, Geschichte 
des Volkes Israel (1900). 

§ 2. Materials for such inquiry may be obtained (1) from each of 
the books or writings concerned, by an examination of the diction and 
style, of the allusions to institutions and historical events, and of the 
religious ideas; and also (2) from outside sources, among which may be 
included the Egyptian, and especially the Assyrian and Babylonian 
monumental literature. 

See Schrader, The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament (1883, transl. in 
2 vols., 1885-88); Sayce (editor), Records of the Past (new series), Vols. I-VI (1889-92) ; 
Evetts, New Light on the Bible and the Holy Land {no date); Sayce, The Higher 

3 



4 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (3d ed. 1894); McCurdy, History, 
Prophecy and the Monuments, Vols. I— III (1895-1901); Hommel, The Ancient Hebrew 
Tradition as Illustrated by the Monuments (1897); T. NiCOL, Recent Archeology 
and the Bible ("Croall Lectures" for 1898); Morris Jastrow, The Religion of 
Babylonia and Assyria (1898); Ira M. Price, The Monuments and the Old Testa- 
ment (1899) ; C. J. Ball, Light from the East (1899) ; Driver, " Hebrew Authority " 
in Hogarth's Authority and Archeology, Sacred and Profane (1899), pp. 1-152; 
Kellner, The Assyrian Monuments Illustrating the Sermons of Isaiah (1900); 
R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, Selected Translations (" World's 
Great Books," Aldine edition, 1901); Budde, "The Old Testament and the Excava- 
tions," American Journal of Theology, Vol. VI (1902), pp. 685-708 ; T. G. Pinches, 
The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records and Legends of Assyria 
and Babylonia (1902; 2d ed. 1903); Friedrich Delitzsch, Babel and Bible (1902, 
transl. by C. H. W. Johns, 1903); Sayce, The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia 
("Gifford Lectures" for 1902); Konig, The Bible and Babylon (1902, transl. 1903); 
HiLPRECHT, Explorations in Bible Lands during the Nineteenth Century (1903); 
G. A. Cooke, ^4 Text- Book of North Semitic Inscriptions (igos); Kittel, The Babylon- 
ian Excavations and Early Bible History (1902; transl. 1903); W. St. Chad Bos- 
cawen, The First of Empires (1903) ; Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt (1905.) 

Winckler, Keilinschriftliches Textbuch zum Alten Testament (1892, 2d ed. 1903); 
Lidzbarski, Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik nebst ausgewahlten Inschriften 
(1898); Winckler und Zimmern,ZV<? Keilinschriflen und das Alte Testament($d ed. 
1902); Lidzbarski, Ephemeris fur semitische Epigraphik, Bd. I (1900-1902), Bd. II 
(i903ff.); Oettli, Der Kampf urn Bibel und Babel (1902); Gunkel, Israel und 
Babylonien: Der Einfluss Babyloniens aufdie israelitische Religion (1903); C. Bezold, 
Die babylonisch-assyrischen Keilinschriflen und ihre Bedeutung fiir das Alte Testa- 
ment (1904); Alfred Jeremias, Das Alte Testament im Lichte des Alien Orients 
(1904); Morris Jastrow, Jr., Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens (transl. from 
the English, and enlarged; Vol. I [1905]). 

§ 3. Certain Principles are accepted as guiding an inquiry of this 
nature. Among these may be noted the following : 

1. Evidence as to the date, authorship, origin, etc., of a writing, 
based on a study of the language, style, historical allusions, etc., is of 
the highest value, provided it has been gathered in a scientific way. 

2. Full recognition is to be made of the general method of history- 
writing employed in ancient times ; viz., compilation. 

3. The writer or speaker, in each case, addressed the people of his 
own times, and, consequently, shaped his material to influence those 
times primarily. 

4. The sacred narratives as such are to be accounted neither poeti- 
cal pieces, nor historical treatises, nor scientific theses ; but rather as 
literature illustrating and intended to teach the great principles of 
the religious life. 

5. Distinction is to be made sharply between the record of an event, 
whatever may be the date of the record, and the event itself. 



CONTENT AND CLASSIFICATION 5 

6. Distinction is also to be made between the original form of an 
utterance, and any later literary form in which it may have been 
clothed. 

7. A writer describing an event of earlier times does not always 
separate clearly the sympathies and antipathies of his own times from 
those of the age to which the event belongs. 

8. The writer or compiler is influenced in his selection of material 
and in his form of presentation by the purpose which he has in mind. 

§ 4. Certain Problems exist, for which some kind of solution is 
necessary before real progress can be made, in the study of the pro- 
phetic element. The more important of these are the following : z 

1. The scope and character of the work which is to be ascribed to 
Moses. 

2. The particular psalms, if any, which are to be assigned to the 
authorship of David. 

3. The content, character, and relative position of the portions of 
the Hexateuch commonly ascribed to the two prophetic narratives 
known as J and E. 

4. The date, circumstances of origin, and general interpretation of 
the prophetic writing ascribed to Joel ; in other words, the question 
whether this is the earliest, or one of the latest, of the prophetic 
writings. 

5. The origin and date of the book of Deuteronomy, whether in 
early times, such as those of Moses, or in the days of Josiah, about 
621 B. C. 

6. The origin and date of chaps. 40-66 of Isaiah, whether they 
come (a) from one author, viz., the Isaiah of Hezekiah's times, or an 
exilic prophet; or (b) from several authors, all of whom lived in the 
period of the exile or later. 

7. The relationship of chaps. 40-48 of Ezekiel to the preceding 
and following development of the priestly idea, as seen in the portions 
of the Hexateuch ascribed to P. 

8. The question of insertions in earlier prophets, especially Amos, 
Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah, from the hands of later prophets. 

9. The date and place of Zechariah, chaps. 9-1 1 and 12-14. 

10. The relationship and the editorial union of the various sources 
of the Hexateuch, known as J, E, D, and P. 

n. The origin and literary character of the book of Daniel, in its 
present form. 

1 These problems will be given further consideration in connection with the various 
periods to which they belong. 



6 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

12. The particular periods to which the various groups of psalms, 
as well as many individual psalms, are to be assigned. 

§5. The Content of Prophetic Material is to be understood as 
including : 

1. The important lives and events of a given period; for these, 
entirely apart from the record of them, constituted an influential factor 
in the development of Israel's religious thought. Prophecy of this 
kind (e. g., the life of Samuel, or the deliverance of Jerusalem from 
Sennacherib in 701 B. C.) may be called living prophecy. 

2. Stories of the past concerning great lives and significant events 
written down for the encouragement or warning of Israel by one whose 
purpose is prophetic; for such stories (e. g., those of Genesis, Exodus, 
Samuel, and Kings) were intended to influence the life of the people 
in the midst of whom the prophet worked, and to whom they were 
addressed. Prophecy of this kind may be called experience prophecy. 

3. Descriptions of the present, in which the writer depicts the sins 
of the rulers, the corruption of the priests, and the ignorance of the 
masses ; or expresses approval of the manifestation of a true desire for 
righteousness; or names the obligations growing out of the relation- 
ship sustained by Israel to Jehovah ; or describes the punishment 
which Israel is now suffering because of her faithlessness ; for such 
descriptive utterances were intended to turn the people away from 
their sins — a true prophetic purpose, and may properly be called 
descriptive prophecy. 

4. Predictions of the future, in which the prophet foretells the 
divine judgment which is soon to fall upon a land full of corrup- 
tion and to leave it a scene of desolation ; or the glorious future of a 
redeemed Zion, abounding in peace and prosperity, a future which 
shall include even the coming of Jehovah himself, and the renovation 
and purification of the entire world ; for, here again, the sole purpose 
of the utterance is to deter the people or to persuade them to come 
nearer to Jehovah and to live lives more worthy of his character. 
Such utterance is properly called predictive prophecy. 

§ 6. A Classification of Prophetic Material According to Historical 
Periods will follow the usual divisions of Hebrew history; viz., early 
(down to 621 B. C), middle (621-444 B. C), and late (444-161 B. C). 
The close connection between history and prophecy not only justifies 
but demands the adoption of the same general divisions. The history 
of the Hebrew nation is, for the most part, a history of thought, rather 
than of life or of action. Prophecy is one phase of that thought, and is 
to be understood only as it stands in proper relation to the other phases. 



CONTENT AND CLASSIFICATION 7 

§ 7. The Early Period of Hebrew history (to 621 B. C.) will include 
the larger portion of the prophetic development; for prophetism is 
the earliest of the three great factors entering into the history of 
Hebrew thought (the others being the priestly element, and the wisdom 
element). In this early period we find three stages of prophetic 
growth, viz.: 

1. The patriarchal, extending to the time of Samuel (1100 B. C), 
and including : 

a) Institutions expressive of religious thought, and especially those 
employed in connection with oracular consultation. 

b) The facts of history, whether lives or events, from Abraham to 
Samuel, in so far as they had significance in connection with the 
development of Israel's religious life, e. g., the exodus from Egypt. 

c) The ancient traditions, whatever they were, inherited by Israel, 
and handed down from father to son. 

d) Actual utterances by religious leaders of prophetic spirit, which 
may safely be attributed to this period. 

2. The Davidic, extending from Samuel to Solomon, and called 
Davidic because David was the central figure of the great group, 
Samuel, Saul, David, and Solomon. This period may properly be 
called that of the United Kingdom, and will include : 

a) The institutions which had their origin, or on which special 
emphasis was placed, in this period ; e. g. f the prophetic schools, the 
temple. 

b) The lives of these men in so far as they influenced and insti- 
gated religious thought, together with the events of national impor- 
tance connected with those lives ; e. g., the founding of the monarchy. 

c) Old traditions concerning the patriarchs, and new traditions 
just forming concerning Israel's earliest leaders. 

d) Oral utterances of prophets of the period, like Samuel, Nathan, 
Gad, and others, which were handed down, due allowance being made 
for accretions in the transmission. 

e) Actual literary pieces of a prophetic character coming from thi 
period, whether in the form of stories, addresses, or psalms. 

3. The prophetic stage, so called because during this period propl 
ism was the most conspicuous factor in Israelitish thought. Here 
separate, yet closely connected, growths present themselves : 

a) The northern (933-721 B. C), which includes, besides th' 
tutions and traditions of northern Israel, the work of Elijah, Eli' 
Jonah, who did not write; also that of Amos and Hosea, who 



8 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

first literary prophets ; and the story-literature which took form at 
this time, including the E-narrative. 

b) The southern (760-630 B. C), which includes, besides the insti- 
tutions and traditions of southern Israel, the prophetic narrative 
J; the literary work of Isaiah, Micah, and Zephaniah ; and the story- 
literature which took form at this time. 

§8. The Middle Period (621-444 B. C.) finds prophecy at its highest 
point and carries it in its decay through three stages : 

1. Pre-exilic, or the prophecy of Jeremiah and his contemporaries 
(640-586 B. C). Here are assigned, in particular, (a) the legal and 
story-literature found in Deuteronomy and the earlier portions of Kings; 
(a) the utterances of Nahum, Habakkuk, Jeremiah, and the earlier 
sermons of Ezekiel; and (c) such prophetic psalms as may be so 
treated. 

2. Exilic, or the prophecy of the captivity (586-538 B. C). Here 
belong (a) the significance of such lives as Jeremiah's, and such events 
as the destruction of Jerusalem ; (0) the later sermons of Ezekiel, the 
utterances of Obadiah, portions of the collection found in Isaiah, chaps. 
40-66, and (c) some psalms. 

3. Post-exilic, or the prophecy of the Restoration (538-444 B. C). 
Here belong the sermons of Haggai and Zechariah (chaps. 1-8), the 
book of Malachi, additions to earlier prophecies, and many psalms, 
although most of these are priestly in their tone. 

§9. The Late Period brings prophecy to its end (444-160 B. C), 
and includes only the last and dying words of prophecy, which really 
have more of the character of apocalypse than of true prophecy. Here 
belong the book of Joel, the material of Zechariah, chaps. 9-1 1, 
12-14, tne story of Jonah, later additions to the earlier prophets, and, 
in its present form, the story of Daniel. The psalms of this period are 
almost wholly priestly. 

§10. The Work of the Prophet, viewed externally in distinction 

from the inner thought of prophecy, deserves careful study, since much 

epends upon the immediate environment which conditioned the pro- 

etic thought. Each historical period makes a special contribution 

his subject. The principal heads of classification are the following: 

\. The private life of the prophet, including his parentage, home, 

.tion, occupation, and social position. 

The political activity of the prophet, including his attitude toward 

^e government, his policy in relation to foreign nations, the 

sures which he proposes, and his general political point of view. 



CONTENT AND CLASSIFICATION 9 

3. The pastoral activity of the prophet, in its various forms of 
preaching, of individual work, teaching in schools, charitable work, 
etc. 

4. The literary activity of the prophet, including story-writing, its 
methods and characteristics ; sermon-writing ; editorial revision of 
earlier writings ; general literary form. 

5. The prophetic reception of the divine message, as by forms of 
sorcery and divination, the use of external agencies such as music, the 
use of the lot, the urim and thummim, dreams, visions or ecstatic 
trances, and spiritual enlightenment. 

6. The prophetic proclamation of the divine message, by tongue and 
pen, through symbols and symbolic actions, by the use of literary 
skill, and by the employment of oratorical methods. 

§11. The Principal Ideas of prophetism, as they were presented 
from period to period, form a definite body of teaching, including 
many subjects. These subjects may be roughly classified as follows : 

1. As relating to God and the supernatural world: 

d) The idea of God, his personality, his names, and his self- 
manifestations. 

b) The various attributes of God. 

c) God in creation and in history. 
d) Angels, cherubim, seraphim. 

e) Evil spirits ; sorcery, witchcraft, etc. 

2. As relating to man: 

a) The origin of man, his nature, dignity, destiny. 

b) The origin and nature of sin and guilt. 

c) Atonement for sin. 

d) Death and the future world. 

3. As relating to the future of Israel: 

a) The coming of Jehovah ; the day of Jehovah. 

b) The holy land in which Israel will dwell. 

c) The future destruction of the "nations." 

d) The new covenant, individual instead of national. 

e) The royal order and the messianic king. 

f) The place of prophetism in the new regime. 

g) The place of the church in the new regime. 
h) The suffering servant ; the vicarious idea. 

4. As relating to ethical standards and worship: 

a) Morality and standards of morality for individual and nation. 

b) Righteousness and faith. 



10 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

c) A covenant relationship between God and man. 

d) Attitude toward worship and forms of worship. 

§ 12. The Various Schools of Interpretation may be arranged in 
three groups : 

i. The rationalistic school denies the existence in Hebrew prophet- 
ism of any element or factor not found in the history of other nations. 
The visions of the prophets are only the aspiration and imaginings of a 
school of poets; their predictions have not been fulfilled, and their 
fulfilment need not be expected. 

2. The predictive school lays greatest emphasis on the predictive ele- 
ment in prophecy, other elements being largely ignored. This school 
has two divisions: 

a) The literal interpreters, who understand that the prophetic pre- 
dictions will be fulfilled in their literal meaning. 

b) The spiritual interpreters, who maintain the fulfilment of the 
spirit, not the letter of the predictions. 

3. The historical school assigns to prediction a less important place, 
and emphasizes the historical element in prophecy, and the ethical 
character of the prophet's work in and for his own times. Here again 
two divisions exist: 

a) The conditional interpreter of the predictive element teaches 
that the various predictions are conditioned rather than absolute, and 
consequently capable of fulfilment only in case of the realization of the 
condition expressed or implied. 

b) The idealistic interpreter understands that the predictions were 
ideal representations based upon a high conception of God; and that 
these representations have been gradually realized as these higher 
ideas of God have been accepted. 

§ 13. Books on Prophecy. 2 

SCHULTZ, Old Testament Theology, 2 vols. (1868, 5th ed. 1896, transl. 1892); 
Kuenen, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel (1875, transl. 1877) ; W. R. Smith, 
The Prophets of Israel (1882, new ed. 1895); Orelli, Old Testament Prophecy (1882, 
transl. 1885); Briggs, Messianic Prophecy (1886) ; Piepenbring, The Theology of the 
Old Testament (1886, transl. 1893); Kirkpatrick, The Doctrine of the Prophets 
(1892) ; Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews ("Hibbert Lectures" for 1892) ; 
Cornill, The Prophets of Israel (1894, transl. 3d ed. 1898); McCurdy, History, 
Prophecy, and the Monuments, 3 vols. (1894-1901); F. H. Woods, The Hope of Israel 
(1896); G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets, 2 vols. (Expositor's Bible, 
1896-98); Riehm, Messianic Prophecy (3d ed. 1900); G. S. Goodspeed, Israel's 
Messianic Hope (1900); Davidson, art. "Prophecy and Prophets," Hastings's 

"This list is intended to include only the most important books on the subject of 
prophecy. 



DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES 1 3 

See the commentaries on I Sam. 9:9, especially those of H. P. Smith (1899), 
Nowack (1901), Budde (1902), Kennedy (1905), and Thenius-Lohr (1898); and 
the Hebrew dictionaries, viz., Brown Driver-Briggs (1891 ff.), Gesenius-Buhl 
(14th ed., 1905), and Siegfried-Stade (1893). 

See also Redslob, Der B e griff des Nabi (1839); Ewald, Commentary on the 
Prophets of the Old Testament, Vol. I, pp. 8 f.; Hupfeld, Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde 
des Morgenlandes, Vol. Ill, p. 40; Delitzsch, Assyrisches Uandworterbuch, p. 44 1; 
Kuenen, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, pp. 42 ff.; Hoffmann, Zeitschrift fiir 
die alttestameniliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill, pp. 87 ff.; W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel 
(2d ed.), pp. 390 f.; Oehler, Old Testament Theology, pp. 363 ff.; Maybaum, Die 
Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthums,\>. 113; Fleischer in Delitzsch's 
Genesis (4th ed.), p. 552; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol. I, pp. 264 ff.; 
Wellhausen, Composition des Hexateuchs (3d ed.) p. 242; Orelli, Old Testament 
Prophecy, pp. 11 f.; Briggs, Messianic Prophecy, pp. 14 ff.; Konig, Der Offen- 
barungsbegriff des Allen Testaments, Vol. I, pp. 73 ff.; Giesebrecht, Die Berufs- 
begabung der alttestamentlichen Propheten (1897); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestament- 
lichen Religionsgeschichte (2d ed., 1899), p. 80; Kittel, Prophetie und Weissagung 
(1899); Konig, Das Berufsbewusstsein der alttestamentlichen Propheten (1900); 
Kraetzschmar, Prophet und Seher im alten Israel (1901); A. B. Davidson in 
Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, pp. 108 f.; Cheyne, Encyclopcedia Biblica, 
cols. 3853 f.; Bewer, American fournal of Semitic. Languages and Literatures, Vol. 
XVIII (1902), p. 120; W. R. Harper, Amos and Hosea (International Critical Com- 
mentary, 1905), p. 4; H. P. Smith, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XXIV, 
pp. 27 f.; Batten, The Hebrew Prophet, pp. 317, 344; and Holzinger (1898), 
Gunkel (1901), and Driver (1904) on Gen. 20:7. 

§15. The Words for "Seer" and "Vision" also occupy an important 
place in prophecy. 

1. Note the use of ro-eh in Isa. 30:10; 1 Sam. 9:9 ff.; 2 Chron. 
16:7, ip. 

2. Note the use of hd-zeh in Am. 7:12; Isa. 30:10; Mic. 3:7; 
2 Chron. 33: 18; 2 Sam. 24:11; 2 Chron. 9:29; 29:30. 

3. Note the use of "vision" in Isa. 21:2; 29:11; 28:18; Joel 3:1; 
Job 4:13; 7:14; 2 Sam. 7:17; Zech. 13: 4. 

4. Consider again 1 Sam. 9:9, and explain the significance of this 
change; when and why did the new word come in? 

5. Observe that these words originally marked the method of 
receiving the divine communication, it being seen in a vision, that is, 
an ecstacy or trance (Dan. 8:13, 17, 26), or a dream (Isa. 29: 7); but in 
time they came to designate the utterance or writing of the message, as 
in Jer. 23: 16; Hab. 2:2; Hos. 12:11; Nah. 1:1; Isa. 1:1. 

See on visions and similar phenomena: Oehler, Ueber das Verhdltniss der 
alttestamentlichen Prophetie zur heidnischen Mantik (1861); Baur, Der Prophet Amos, 
p. 400; Duhm, Die Theologie der Propheten, pp. 86 ff.; Oehler, Theology of the Old 
Testament, §§20j,2og; Kuenen, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, pp. 76-85; Konig, 
Der Offenbarungsbegriff des alten Testamentes, Vol. II, pp. 8-60; Maybaum, Die Ent- 



14 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

wickelung des israelitischen Prophelenthums, pp. 1-6; Briggs, Messianic Prophecy, pp. 
6-10; Riehm, Alttestamentliche Theologie, pp. 20 ff., 212 ff.; Schultz, Old Testament 
Theology, Vol. I, pp. 250 ff., 275-79, 281 ff.; Orelli, Old Testament Prophecy, pp. 4 ff.; 
Meinhold, Prophetie und Schwarmerei (1892); Gunkel, Schbpfung und Chaos, pp. 
323-27; W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, pp. 2i9'ff., 421; Borchert, "Die Visionen der 
Propheten," Theologische Studien und Kritiken (1895), pp. 217 ff.; Dillmann, Alt- 
testamentliche Theologie, pp. 477 ff., 494; Schwartzkopff, Die prophetische Offenbarung 
(1896); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (2d ed.), pp. 82 ff.; 
Giesebrecht, Die Berufsbegabung der alttestamentlichen Propheten, pp. 38-72; Driver, 
Joel and Amos, pp. 200 ff., cf. p. 126; Macdon ald, Journal of the American Oriental 
Society, Vol. XX (1899), pp. 89 ff., 96, 109 f., 117; Morgan, arts. "Trance" and 
"Vision," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV; Volz and Cheyne, art. 
"Prophetic Literature," (§§ 19, 20), Encyclopaedia Biblica. 

§16. The Prophetic Vocabulary contains also other words deserving 
special study, among which are : 

1. The word ne*utn, translated "saith" in Ps. 110:1; this would be 
better rendered "utterance," "oracle" {cf also in Ps. 36:1; Prov. 
30 : 1), and really means "whispering," "murmuring ; " it is used espe- 
cially with divine names, e. g., Gen. 22:16; Isa. 14:22!.; 30:1; 
31:9; Hos. 2:15; 11: 11; Am. 3:13; 4:5; 6:8; 8:3; Ezek. 
13 : 6; 16 : 58; Jer. 2 : 22 ; 46: 18; 49 : 5 ; Nah. 2 : 14; Zech. 13:2; 
but also with the name of a prophet in an ecstatic state, cf. Numb. 

24 = 3> I Sl 2 Sam - 2 3: i- 

2. The word massa\ translated " burden," "utterance," "oracle." 
(a) Note the use of the verb (="liftup") in Numb. 23 : 7 ; Mic. 2:44; 
Isa. 14: 4, when the reference is to some formal or solemn utterance. 
{b) Examine the word in Isa. 13:1; 14:28; 15:15 2 Kings 9:25; 
Hab. 1:1. (c) Note, however, that in Jer. 23 : 33, 34, 36, 38 the use of 
this word is strictly prohibited. 

3. The use of "word" (Keb. dabhar) is also to be noticed as a 
technical one, designating the utterance of the prophet, as dis- 
tinguished from the "law" (tordh) of the priest, and the "counsel" of 
the sage {cf. Jer. 18 : 18). 

4. The phrase "And Jehovah (or God) said," or "Thus said 
Jehovah," is frequently used to designate a prophetic utterance {cf 
Am. 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 13; 2:1, 4, 6; 5:4; Hos. 3:1; Isa. 8:1; 37:33; 
43: 1 ; Jer. 3: 11; 11:6; 13:1; Ezek. 6:11; 8:5; 30:13; Zech. 
8:9; 11:15. Concerning this phrase, it may be noted {a) that it 
does not indicate the method of speech employed by the Deity, since it 
is used of all the methods of divine communication ; {b) that in 
many cases it designates the prompting of the heart, the voice of 
conscience, and consequently is used by the false prophet (Jer. 



DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES I 5 

28 : 2 ff.; i Kings 22 : 11) who, perhaps, really thinks that he is utter- 
ing the " word of God," and also of ideas which later experience shows 
God would not indorse ; cf. the lying spirit placed by God in the 
mouths of the prophets (1 Kings 22:19-23); (c) that time was 
required to sift the alleged "sayings of God," and to determine 
whether, after all, they bore the divine stamp; observe the provision 
made for this in Deut. 18 : 22 f. 

See especially Briggs, Messianic Prophecy, pp. 12-22 ; Orelli, Old Testa- 
ment Prophecy, pp. 5-13; Giesebrecht, Die Berufsbegabung det alttestamentlichen 
Propheten; Konig, Das Berufsbewusstsein der alttestamentlichen Propheten; VoLZ, 
art. "Prophetic Literature" (§§ I4f.)> Encyclopedia Biblica. 

§17. Definitions of Prophecy. 

1. The Nationalistic School of interpretation excludes from prophecy 
everything that points to guidance by a higher power, and then reduces 
it to the level of ordinary human composition. Prophecy, from this 
point of view, may be defined as a system of thought (a) intended to 
lift the people to an ethical conception of the Deity; (&) advocated 
by men of various degrees of moral and intellectual attainment, some 
of whom were fanatics, others men of great spiritual endowment; (c) 
including coarse and extravagant pictures of the people's sins, and 
varied by prognostications of the future which were more likely to 
prove false than true. 

Here may be classified such works as Spinoza, Tractatus theologico-politicus 
(1670), chaps, i-iii ; Hitzig, Vorlesungen uber biblische Theologie und messianische 
Weissagungen des Alten Testaments (1880) ; Renan, History of the People of Israel; 
and, with some reservation, Kuenen, Prophets and Prophecy in Israel. 

2. The Predictive School of interpreters, on the other hand, ignores 
very largely any relationship between prophecy and history, treats 
prediction as the most important factor in prophecy, and demands an 
exact fulfilment in letter or spirit of every predicted utterance. From 
this point of view, prophecy may be defined as the foretelling, by 
information granted directly through revelation, of occurrences which 
were contingent, and which, therefore, were not to be foreknown by 
human wisdom. 

To this school belong, for example : Hengstenberg, Christology of the Old 
Testament (1872-75); R. Payne Smith, Prophecy a Preparation for Christ (1871); 
Gloag, The Messianic Prophecies (1879); Pember, The Great Prophecies concerning 
the Gentiles, thefews, and the Church of God (1881); Stanley Leathes, Old Testa- 
ment Prophecy; Its Witness as a Record of Divine Foreknowledge (1880) ; Thomas 
Newton, Dissertations on the Prophecies Which Have Remarkably Been Fulfilled, 
etc. (1883) ; W. H. Green, Moses and the Prophets (1883). 



1 6 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

3. The Historical School of interpretation places great emphasis 
upon the historical connections of prophetic utterances, relegates pre- 
diction to a less prominent position than is given it by the Predictive 
School, and endeavors to trace through the centuries the beginnings, 
the growth and climax, and the decay and death of this movement of 
Israelitish thought. From this point of view, prophecy may be defined 
as a special form of religious instruction, in which effort is made to 
illustrate and to formulate the principles in accordance with which the 
Ruler of the universe conducts his government of nations and of indi- 
viduals. 

As representative of this school, which is now dominant, may be cited : W. 
Robertson Smith, Prophets of Israel; Cornill, Prophets of Israel; Kirkpatrick, 
Doctrine of the Prophets; Riehm, Messianic Prophecy; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttesta- 
mentlichen Religionsgeschichte ; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion ; MONTE- 
JFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews; Batten, The Hebrew Prophet. 

§ 18. History in its Relation to Prophecy. — Three points deserve 
attention : 

1. A knowledge of Israelitish history is necessary for any proper 
understanding of Old Testament prophecy; still further, there is 
needed an acquaintance also with that wider Semitic history of which 
Israelitish history is only a part. This becomes evident in the study 
of such a prophet as Isaiah, whose voice was heard on all the great 
political issues at a time when Israel's interests were closely interwoven 
with those of Egypt and Assyria. 

2. The history of a period is fundamental to the prophecy of that 
period, since the history lies back of the prophecy and supports it. 
Even more, the history occasions the prophecy; the historical event 
furnishes the situation which prophecy undertakes to interpret. Con- 
sider from this point of view the prophecies of Isaiah uttered in con- 
nection with the embassy of Merodach-Baladan to Hezekiah (chap. 39). 

3. If prophecy has in it a divine element, then history has the 
same. If history is human — that is, determined by the will of man, 
characterized by the limitations of human weakness — so is prophecy. 
The prophet conveys a true conception of God's will, but he is limited 
in his work by the character of the language which he employs, by 
the ignorance and wilfulness of the people whom he addresses, and by 
the weakness inherent in his own humanity, and inseparable from the 
situation in which he does his work. 

§ 19. The Time, Form, and Substance of Prophecy are conditioned : 

1. The time of the utterance of a given prophecy was determined by 

the time of the occurrence of the event or experience which gave rise 



DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES I J 

to the prophecy. If the event or experience had been postponed, the 
preaching of the particular truth taught by the event would have been 
postponed. Each truth was appropriately made known at a particular 
time in the history which, as it proceeded, furnished a basis for the 
announcement of that truth. Every crisis signified the promulgation of 
some new truth ; e. g., Isaiah's doctrine of the inviolability of Jerusalem 
was announced in connection with Sennacherib's attempt upon the city. 

2. The form of the prophetic utterance was also determined by 
the historical event out of which it grew. The same truth takes on 
varying forms in different periods. The form in every case finds its 
explanation in the particular circumstances with which it stood closely 
related. Consider, for example, the apocalyptic, enigmatical character 
of the prophecy of Daniel in the light of the tyrannical oppression 
of Antiochus Epiphanes, in whose reign it was written. 

3. The very substance of prophecy was dependent upon and deter- 
mined by the historical event. Amos preaches destruction in view of 
an approaching Assyrian invasion. Isaiah announces the doctrine of 
the remnant when Jerusalem's existence is threatened. The doctrine 
of individualism appears at the very moment when national existence 
is about to perish. When loyal Israel is languishing in captivity, the 
reproach and sport of her enemies, the doctrine of a suffering servant 
is presented. At this time, too, arguments for the oneness of God 
are urged more earnestly than before. At the time of the restoration, 
prophecy concerns itself with the rebuilding of the temple. The 
substance of prophecy cannot, in any case, be separated from the his- 
tory of the prophetic people. 

§ 20. Prophecy's Relation to the Nation's Past, Present, and Future. — 
Prophecy had to do with all three spheres of time : 

1. With the past, when the speaker presents for the encouragement 
or the warning of his countrymen the record of God's dealings in for- 
mer times with the nation and with individuals — stories of the nation's 
apostasy and consequent slavery; of a king's crime and the punish- 
ment which followed; of a royal prayer and a miraculous deliverance; 
of a prophetic mission and a city turned from sin, such as are found 
throughout Genesis, Exodus, Samuel, and Kings. 

2. With the present, when the prophet describes the wickedness and 
iniquity which he sees on every side and rebukes it ; or observes a 
true desire for righteousness and approves it — pictures of the corrup- 
tion and debauchery existing among the ruling classes ; of extortion 
and oppression practiced upon the poor; of faithlessness and skepti- 



1 8 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

cism toward the nation's God Jehovah ; of peace and prosperity the 
result of obedience, such as occupy a large portion of the space of 
written prophecy. See, for example, Am. 3:9-15; 5:4—12; Hos. 
4:1-19; Zeph. 2:1—3:7; Jer. 3:21—4:5. 

3. With the future, when the prophet, acquainted with the laws 
in accordance with which the divine will acts, and knowing therefore 
that which must follow this or that line of conduct, directs his thoughts 
to the glorious future, with all its splendid prospects for the nation 
and its ideal government ; or in tones of thunder depicts the divine 
judgment which must inevitably fall upon a land so full of corruption 
and idolatry, and leave it a scene of desolation. Cf Isa., chap. 28 ; 
Am. 9:11-15; Ezek., chaps. 6, 7. 

§21. Prediction occupies a large and important place in prophecy, 
and may be considered from the point of view of — 

1. Its immediate purpose, viz., to influence the minds of the people 
directly addressed. Here it is important to observe (a) that every pre- 
diction grew out of two factors : one, the historical situation ; the 
other, the body of principles received and applied by the prophets ; 
(6) that prediction in almost every case was general rather than specific ; 
(c) that general predictions were frequently applied specifically by New 
Testament writers, e.g., Isa. 9:1, 2; cf. Matt. 4:14 ff.; Isa. 29:13; cf 
Matt. 15:8 f. 

2. Its conditional character. Study Jer. 18: 1-10 and note: (a) When 
the prediction contained a threat, and the people for this reason gave 
heed to the words of the threat, the calamity threatened did not fall ; 
in other words, the prediction remained unfulfilled ; and {b) when 
the prediction took the form of a promise, and the people gave no 
heed to the words of the prophet uttering the promise, the thing 
promised was not given ; in other words, the prediction was unful- 
filled. The predictions of the prophet who was able by his preaching 
to turn the people from their sins were not fulfilled, the prophet's suc- 
cess rendering the fulfilment unnecessary; while on the other hand, 
the predictions of disaster made by a prophet who had failed to reach 
the hearts of the people were the predictions which received fulfil- 
ment. 

3. Its more distant purpose, as shown by time, the New Testament 
writers, and human experience. This distant purpose (a) rested upon 
the fact that the prophets' words were based upon principles true for 
all time, and therefore capable of application to every situation which 
corresponded in general to the situation for which the words were 



DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES 1 9 

originally intended ; (&) presupposes the introductory and preparatory 
character of the history in connection with which the utterances were 
made ; (c) is to be closely connected in every case with the immediate 
purpose ; (d) is to be interpreted in the light of the fact that in many 
cases the prophets were setting forth lofty and inspiring ideals in 
highly poetic and figurative language, the exact realization of which in 
every detail is not to be expected ; see, e. g., Isa. 2 : 2-4 ; 1 1 : 6-9 ; Zech. 
14: 16-21. 

On predictive prophecy see Briggs, Messianic Prophecy, chap, ii ; Kuenen, 
Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, chap, v ; Orelli, Old Testament Prophecy, pp. 50-62; 
A. B. Davidson in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, pp. 120 f.; Volz, art. 
"Prophetic Literature " (§§ 16 f.), Encyclopaedia Biblica; Hoffmann, Weissagung und 
Erfiillung (1841) ; KlTTEL, Profetie und Weissagung (1899). 

§ 22. The Prophet Himself is to be thought of — 

1. As one of the people, the product of the agencies at work in the 
nation, identified in spirit and life with his age, choosing one or another 
of the political parties of his times, and always speaking a message 
primarily intended for his contemporaries. 

2. As a reformer, whose chief function was to improve the religious 
condition of his people, dealing with the sins of his day rather than 
with those of other periods, never speaking except to influence the 
lives and thoughts of those whom he addressed. 

3. As himself one of the objective factors influencing his people and 
his age, representing ideas far in advance of his times, urging poli- 
cies directly in contrast with those of his age, contending with an 
audacious courage against the tendencies of his times, and all the while 
shaping and molding these times. 

§ 23. The Prophetic Work is also to be considered from the point of 
view of — 

1. The prophefs life in each case, and his relation to the technical 
schools of the prophets which were in vogue. Some were professional 
prophets, among these the so-called false prophets ; others refused to 
be so considered. Some were priests, especially in the closing periods 
of prophetic work. Some lived in the cities ; others came from the 
country. Some were of royal blood ; others, of the most humble 
parentage. Some exercised the powers of king or dictator; others 
lived the life of martyrs and were placed in dungeons. 

See 1 Sam. 10:9-12, 25 ff.; 11:14 f-*» *3 : 8 ff.; 1 Kings 19:19 ff.; 20:35; 22:27 f-; 
2 Kings 2:15 ff.; Amos 7: 14 ff.; Jer. 1: 1; 38:6; Ezek. 1:3; 4:14. 

2. His relation to the priest. At first priest and prophet were hardly 



20 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

to be distinguished; later the prophet's high conceptions of God and 

life bring him into direct conflict with the priests of his times; after a 

time, prophet and priest join hands in promulgating the new law of 

Deuteronomy, the priest thereby gaining great advantage ; still later, 

the priest with the written "law" takes the place of the prophet and 

his " word," the last prophets being themselves priests. 

See i Sam., chap. 3; 7: 5—1 1; Hos. 4:6-10; 5: I ff.; Amos 7: 10 £f.; 2 Kings, chaps. 
22 and 23; Ezek. 1:3; 4:14; chaps. 40-48; Hag. 2:11 ff.; Mai. 1:6-14; 2:1-9. 

3. His relation to the sage — one of sympathy and co-operation, 
although the prophet always represented the national point of view, 
while the sage stood for the universal. 

See Prov. 29 : 18 ; Am. 5 : 10; Isa. 29 :2i ; Prov. 11:21; and 20 :J; cf. Jer. 32 :i8 ; 

and cf. Cheyne,/<?£ and Solomon, pp. 119 ff., 182 f. 

§24. Israelitish History, Literature, and Prophecy share alike in the 
characteristics of the Israelitish development. 

1. Israelitish history, whatever may have been the special divine 
relationship sustained to it, includes, on the part of its greatest leaders, 
actions of the most sinful character, and, on the part of the nation itself, 
actions and institutions of the most degraded type. It is the his- 
tory of a nation, starting on the level of other nations, and gradually 
rising, through the influence of great leaders, to a more and more noble, 
more and more true, conception of God, and with every step upward 
leaving behind some belief or custom inherited from paganism which 
had become inconsistent with the higher ideal of God. This history 
exhibits the influence of the divine spirit — an influence exerted with all 
the strength of almighty power acting in consistency with other attri- 
butes, and working in the hearts of a people held down by sin. 
It is, in short, the story of a nation lifted little by little from the lowest 
condition of nomadism, and exhibiting at each stage of progress the 
weaknesses and sins common to peoples at that stage of advancement. 

2. Israelitish literature, whatever may have been the special divine 
relationship sustained to it, contains different and differing accounts of 
the same event, including errors and inconsistencies in statement, if 
interpreted in the light of history and science, and shows a total disre- 
gard for the common laws of history-writing accepted in our time. 
It is the literature of a nation passing through successive periods of 
national growth, each period making some new contribution toward a 
better knowledge of God and of his relationship to man. This litera- 
ture exhibits the influence of the divine spirit — an influence exerted 
with all the strength of almighty power acting in consistency with other 



DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES 21 

attributes, and working in the hearts of a people of Semitic blood, living 
during these periods of the world's history. The literature shared all 
of the merits and the demerits of the history. Whatever one was, the 
other was. It is, in short, the literature of a people brought, from 
time to time, into contact with the great nations of the world, absorb- 
ing from these nations good, as well as bad, and transmitting to the 
next age the accumulations of the past to be arranged and interpreted 
according to the ideas of each successive period. 

3. Old Testament prophecy is both history and literature ; the former, 
if viewed as a movement; the latter, if viewed as the product of that 
movement. The prophets made history as well as literature. As agents 
of the higher power which they firmly believed had especially called 
them to its service, they entered heartily into everything that consti- 
tuted national life. At times they were actually in full control of the 
nation's development and for a period they almost exclusively consti- 
tuted the literary class. Whatever is said of Israel's history may be 
said of Israel's prophetism ; whatever is said of Israel's literature 
may be said of Israel's prophecy. It was a movement, in some respects 
the most eventful in the history of human thought, exhibiting more 
definitely than any other, perhaps, the direct influence of the Holy 
Spirit. 



Paet Second 



THE HISTORY OF PROPHECY THROUGH HOSEA 

III. Prophecy and Prophetism during the Period of the 

Patriarchs and Judges. 

IV. Prophecy and Prophetism During the Davidic Period. 

V. The Background of Prophecy and Prophetism in the 
Northern Kingdom. 

VI. The Product of Prophecy and Prophetism from 933- 
800 B.C. 

VII. The Prophetic Message of the Early Histories. 

VIII. The Prophetic Message of Amos. 

IX. The Prophetic Message of Hosea. 



CHAPTER III. 

PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE PERIOD OF 
THE PATRIARCHS AND JUDGES. 

§25. The Scope of This Period is practically that of Israel's begin- 
nings, commencing with Abraham and closing about the time of 
Samuel's birth. It includes therefore (1) the early nomadic life in 
Palestine, (2) the descent into Egypt, (3) the exodus from Egypt, 
(4) the residence in the wilderness, (5) the conquest of Canaan, (6) 
the settlement in Canaan — a period of more than one thousand years. 

§ 26. The Character of the Period may not easily be indicated. 
The earlier portion could be only what a nomadic life made possible. 
It was certainly not a period furnishing prophetic thought or pro- 
phetic movement. It might be called pre- prophetic, because it pre- 
ceded, and prepared the way for, the earliest phase of prophetic 
development which started with Samuel. The religious spirit was 
crude and primitive, although very intense. It was this spirit, how- 
ever, that furnished the basis on which prophecy was to develop. 
It was, above all, the period in which the older Semitic religion came 
into contact with the Baalism of the Canaanites, in which Israel 
"assimilated the mass of the Canaanites with their thought and their 
principles " (Davidson). Israel's religion was long weighed down 
with the foreign elements thus absorbed ; but when once these new 
elements had been overcome and brought into control, the result was 
something which proved to be broader and warmer; something which 
could not have existed but for this commingling. 

§27. The Contemporaneous Literary Sources of this 
period are few. Those that exist are hardly to be called 
prophetic. The determination of these sources is at- 
tended with much difficulty (cf. § 3). Entire agreement 
has not yet been reached. The following pieces, in 
whole or in part, may, however, be regarded as the 
literary product of this period : 

Gen. 4:23, 24. 1. The Song of Lamech, in which the primitive war- 

like spirit of the early Semites finds expression. 

Gen. 9:25-27. 2. The blessing of Noah, in which the hostility of 

the Hebrews toward the Canaanites in post-Egyptian 
times is the dominant note. 

25 



26 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

3. Portions of the blessing of Jacob, a reflection of Gen., chap. 49. 
the conditions and relations of the tribes in the days of 

the early occupation of Canaan. 

4. The Song of the Exodus, in which the triumph Exod. 15:1-19. 
of Jehovah over the Egyptians is celebrated. 

5. The original words of the Decalogue, in which Exod. 20: 1-17. 
ethical and religious laws for the newly organized nation 

are formulated. 

6. Some portions of the Book of the Covenant, con- Exod., chaps. 

21-23. 
taining the laws required for the conduct of social and 

religious life in the newly acquired land of Canaan. 

7. Notes of the itinerary from which the later accounts Numb., chaps. 

10-25 and 33. 
were developed. 

8. Songs of the desert, arising out of the conditions Numb. 21:14*., 

17 f. 
of nomadic life. 

9. Portions of Balaam's addresses, which grew out of Numb., chaps. 23, 

24. 
the strife between Israel and Moab in the days of con- 
quest and settlement. 

10. Portions of the Song of Moses, which express Deut.,chap. 33. 
the ideals and hopes of the later days of this period. 

11. The Song of Deborah, a triumphal ode upon judg., chap. 5. 
Israel's overthrow of the Canaanites under Sisera. 

12. Jotham's fable, an illustration of the disturbed Judg. 9:7-15. 
political conditions in early Israel. 

It is to be noted that the present literary form of 
some of this material — e. g., the Decalogue, the Bless- 
ing of Jacob — is from a date later even than 900-800 
B. C. 

§ 28. Constructive Work. — In the case of each of the twelve pieces 
cited under § 27, consider the following suggestions : 

1. Ascertain the particular century to which the piece is now com- 
monly assigned, together with the grounds on which its assignment to 
this period rests. 

2. Separate carefully those portions of the piece which may fairly 
be regarded as having had their origin later than 1050 B. C, indi- 
cating the reasons for this separation. 

3. Describe the historical background of the piece in as close 
detail as possible. 

4. Indicate succinctly the content of the piece — what, as a matter 
of fact, is said in it. 



THE PERIOD OF THE PATRIARCHS AND JUDGES 27 

5. Try to connect the content with the historical setting, and to 
discover the underlying purpose of the piece. 

6. Formulate the principal teachings, the most vital thought, which 
the piece contains. 

§ 29. Later Literary Sources of information relating to 
this period and throwing light upon (1) the institutions, 
(2) the important lives and events, and (3) the utterances 
of the principal characters, are to be found in certain 
documents or books, the date of which falls a considerable 
time after the events themselves. This material, ordi- 
narily called tradition, represents more accurately the 
point of view of the later age in which it took its 
present literary form, than that of the age which it 
describes. The following are the principal pieces falling 
under this head : 
Kumb. 21:14; 1. Books (now lost) of the Wars of Jehovah and 

JOS. IO: 12, 13; ,,, 11 • r 11. 

2 Sam. 1:17-27. of Jasnar, probably collections of songs celebrating 

Israel's victories from the time of Moses onward. 

E.g., judg. 6:1- 2. The book of Tudges, a compilation of stories con- 

10; 10:6-16; . , U. i r , 

chaps. 17 and cerning the conquest of Canaan, and of heroic deeds 

2:6—3:6. against the Canaanites and other foes of Israel in the 

pre-monarchical period. These stories were first reduced 
to writing about the ninth century B. C, and this primi- 
tive work underwent thorough revision at the hands of 
successive editors until the book assumed its present 
form. The result is a narrative presenting the early 
history in Canaan from the Deuteronomic standpoint. 

E.g., Gen. 20:1- 7.. E, one of the constituent documents of the 

17; 21 : 8— ° 

22:13; 31:2-16, Hexateuch, taking its name from its use of the word 
19-24, 32-42, 51 
—32:2; 35:1-4, Elohim in speaking of God, compiled probably in north - 

63—8 ; 37 : 5-36 

(in the main); ern Israel, and narrating the ancient traditions and early 
40:1—41:40; J 

42:8-37; Exod. history of Israel from the point of view of northern 
1:15 — 2:10; 
17:1^—18:27; prophets, living not later than 850 B. C. 

20 : 1 — 24 : 8 ; 

Deut.,chap. 33. 4. J, another constituent source of the Hexateuch, 

— 4 : 26 ; 6 : i-8 ; deriving its name from its use of the name Jehovah in 
ia.-x-4« f 6-20; ' speaking of God, compiled in Judah, and narrating the 

18:1—19:28,30- . ... , 11. r T 1 r 1 

38524:1-67; ancient traditions and early history of Israel from the 
point of view of southern prophets, living not later 
than 750 B. C. 



Exod. 34 : 1-28. 



28 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

k. D, a third Hexateuchal source, containing: the Especially, Deut., 
u ' ° chaps, i-ii. 

greater part of the book of Deuteronomy and other 

materials, especially in the book of Joshua, characterized 
by the same style and spirit, being chiefly a revision of 
the earlier legislation and a narrative of the events con- 
nected with the promulgation of the Mosaic law. This 
is probably the book that was found in the reign of 
King Josiah (621 B. C). 

6. P, a fourth Hexateuchal source, being a narra- e. g., Gen. 1:1 — 

tive of Israel's history beginning with creation itself, 6:9-22; 9:1-17; 
• iii 11 i 1 1 7 • • ■, 11:10-27; 17:1- 

compiled by men controlled by the priestly spirit and 27; 28:1-9; 

r r 36:1-30; Exod., 

representing the point of view of the post-exilic Jews; 6:2—7:13; 

12:1-20; 34:29 
in its latest form, not earlier than the days of Ezra, —40:38; Book 

of Leviticus; 
440 B. C. Numb. 1:1— 10: 

28; 15: 1-41. 

§ 30. In the Interpretation of These Later Sources it will often be 
found difficult to distinguish between the thought of the writer's time 
and that of the times of the event. In general, three schools of 
interpretation exist : 

1. The school which maintains that the material of these documents 
is, for the most part, contemporaneous with the events described or 
words uttered ; and that, in any case, by direct divine interposition, 
the narratives have been rendered absolutely accurate in every par- 
ticular, and consequently are to be understood literally, the words, for 
example, placed in the mouths of Abraham, or Jacob, or Moses, 
being the exact words used. 

2. The school which maintains that this material has no historical 
value, since it is largely, if not wholly, the creation of the later author, 
the representations made by him belonging to his own time rather 
than to the times which he describes. 

3. The school which concedes the later date of the literary author- 
ship of the books in their present form ; but insists that these authors 
made use of earlier writings, some of them very old, and that, conse- 
quently, some, at least, of the essential substance, belongs to the age 
of the events. The point of view of this, the third school, is taken in 
these studies. It is frankly conceded that the adoption of this posi- 
tion often leaves one in great uncertainty, for the reason that in many 
cases sufficient data do not exist to serve as a basis for sharply distin- 
guishing the writer's point of view from that of the times of which he 
is giving the history. 



THE PERIOD OF THE PATRIARCHS AND JUDGES 29 

§31. Constructive Work. — It is important to make use of these 
later traditions, and to this end it is suggested that, in the case of each 
of the collections or documents indicated in § 29, the student — 

1. Secure from some authority (see below) the actual Scripture 
material which scholars are accustomed to regard as included in it. 

2. Consider the various points which are thought to be characteristic 
of it. 

3. Study closely the times in which it is claimed to have had its 
origin, and the important ideas of those times. 

4. Note the "traditions" given concerning these early times which 
form the basis of this study, and distinguish the sympathies and 
antipathies which have been transferred from the later period. 

5. Sum up briefly the essential events and ideas which, after due 
allowance has been made for such transference, may fairly be regarded 
as belonging to the period described. 

See especially Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, pp. 
116-72; Carpenter and Harford-Battersbv, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 92-156, 
and Vol. II; Mitchell, The World before Abraham, pp. 16-67; B. W. Bacon, 
The Genesis of Genesis (1893); Idem, The Triple Tradition of the Exodus (1894); Addis, 
The Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. I (1893), Vol. II (1898); articles " Hexateuch," in 
Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible and Encyclopcedia Biblica; GUNKEL, The Legends 
of Genesis; and the commentaries by Driver, Moore, Nowack, Kennedy and 
H. P. Smith on Deuteronomy, Judges, and Samuel. 

§ 32. Monumental Sources throwing light upon the times of this 
period include, among other material : 

1. The Hammurabi code of laws, dating from about 2250 B. C, 
and revealing fully the advanced stage of civilization already attained 
by the Babylonians. 

See R. F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylonia (1904); 
L. W. King, The Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi (1898); S. A. Cook, The 
Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi (1903); W. Hayes Ward, "Who Was 
Hammurabi?" Century, July, 1903; C. F. Kent, "The Recently Discovered Civil 
Code of Hammurabi," Biblical World, Vol. XXI (1903), pp. 175-90; C. H. W. 
Johns, "Notes on the Code of Hammurabi," American fournal of Semitic Languages 
and Literatures, Vol. XIX (1903), pp. 96-107; Idem, The Oldest Code of Laws in the 
World: The Code of Laws Pro?nulgated by Hammurabi, King of Babylon, B. C. 
2285-2242 (1903); T. G. Pinches, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, 
November, 1902; W. Hayes Ward, "The Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon 
(about 2250 B. C.)," Independent, 1903, pp. 67-70, 127-32, 183-90 ; V. Scheil, 
Memoires de la delegation en Perse, Tome IV (1902); H. Winckler, Die Gesetze 
Hammurabis (1903); D. H. Muller, Die Gesetze Hammurabis und ihr Verhaltnis 
zur Mosaischen Gesetzgebung sowie zu den XII Tafeln (1903); Kohler und Peiser, 
Hammurabi 1 s Gesetz; Band I, Uebersetzung, furistische Wiedergabe, Erlduterung 



30 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(1903); Grimme, Das Gesetz Chammurabis und Moses (1903); Oettli, Das Geselz 
Hammurabis und die Thora Israels (1903); J. Jeremias, Moses und Hammurabi 
(1903). 

2. Babylonian contract tablets from the time of Abraham, showing 
that persons bearing Hebrew names were then in Babylonia, that there 
was much intercourse between Babylonia and the West, and that 
Babylonian civilization was already highly developed. 

See R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature — Selected Translations 
(1901), pp. 256-72. 

3. The Tell-el-Amarna letters, dating from the fifteenth century 
B. C, and showing the extent of Babylonian influence in Canaan and 
the disturbed political condition there at that time. 

See Bezold, Oriental Diplomacy (1892); Budge and Bezold, The Tell-el- 
Amarna Tablets (1892); Winckler, The Tell-el-Amarna Letters (1896); Petrie, 
Syria and Egypt from the Tell-el-A?narna Letters (1898); Niebuhr, Die Amarna-Zeit 
(1899); R. F. Harper, op. cit., pp. 217-41. 

4. The popular Egyptian story entitled " The Tale of Two 

Brothers," which originated about the thirteenth century B. C, and 

affords a parallel to the story of Joseph and Potiphar's wife. 

See Petrie, Egyptian Tales, Vol. II (1895), PP« 3° #•; Records of the Past (1st 
series), Vol. II, pp. 137-52; Maspero, Contes populaires egyptiennes. 

5. The Stele of Merneptah, mentioning the Israelites and illus- 
trating Egyptian activities in Canaan about the time of the exodus. 

See J. II. Breasted, Biblical World, Vol. IX (1897), pp. 62-68; Spiegelberg, 
Zeitschrift fiir aegyptische Sprache, Vol. XXXIV (1896), pp. I-25 ; Hommel, Expository 
Times, October, 1896; Petrie, Contemporary Review, May, 1896; Sayce, Academy, 
July, 1896; Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, III, §§602 ff.; 10-12 ; 629-38. 

6. The lists of the Egyptian kings, Thothmes III. (1 501-1447 B. C), 
Seti I. (1313-1293 B. C), Ramses II. (1293-1226 B. C), and Ramses 
III. (1198-1167 B.C.), furnishing evidence of Egyptian activities in 
Palestine. 

See Records of the Past (new series), Vol. VI, pp. 24 ff., 31 ff.; W. Max 
Muller, Asien und Europa (1893), pp. 159, 164 ff., 227 ff., 393; Sayce, Patriarchal 
Palestine, pp. 235-40. 

7. The Egyptian narrative entitled " The Travels of a Mohar," 

coming from the reign of Ramses II. and being an imaginative recital 

of a trip through Palestine. 

See Sayce, Patriarchal Palestine (1895), pp. 204-24; Records of the Past (1st 
series), Vol. II, pp. 107-16. 

8. The legend concerning the birth and boyhood of Sargon I., 
king of Agade, a story furnishing some parallels to the narrative of the 
birth of Moses. 



THE PERIOD OF THE PATRIARCHS AND JUDGES 3 1 

See R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature — Selected Translations 
(1901), p. 1. 

9. Historical inscriptions of Nebuchadrezzar I., king of Babylon 

(about 1 1 40 B. C), and Tiglath-pileser I., king of Assyria (about 1100 

B. C), yielding much information concerning the power and influence 

of Babylonia and Assyria in the twelfth century B. C. 

See R. F. Harper, op. cit., pp. 8-27; W. Lotz, Die Inschriflen Tiglathpileser's, 
I (1880); Eb. Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, Vol. I (1889), pp. 14-49. 

§33. Constructive Work. — Prepare a brief statement in relation to 
each of these pieces, presenting the essential items of interest from 
the point of view of Israel's history and thought in this early period. 
For these materials in general and their value see the literature cited 
in §§ 2, 32, and also the following : 

S. R. Driver, " Hebrew Authority," in Hogarth's Authority and Archceology, 
PP« 35—79 ; C. J. Ball, Light from the East, pp. 62-133; Sayce, Higher Criticism 
and the Verdict of the Monuments (1894); Idem, Patriarchal Palestine ; Hommel, The 
Ancient Hebrew Tradition as Lllustrated by Jhe Monuments (1897); W. Max Muller, 
Asien und Europa nach altaegyplischen Denkmalern (1893); L» B. Paton, Early- 
History of Syria and Palestine (1901); Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte 
Testament (3d ed. 1902); T. G. Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of the His- 
torical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia (1902). 

§ 34. Constructive Work. — On the basis of the monumental material 
cited in § 32, consider in general (1) the relations of Israel with other 
nations ; (2) the various changes in Israel's geographical, historical, 
and social environment during this early period ; (3) the help 
received from it for a better understanding of Israel's life and religion. 

§ 35. Study the Institutions expressive of religious thought as they 
existed in this period, in general (see my Priestly Element in the Old 
Testament [1905], §§ 15, 16), and in particular, viz.: 

1. The Priest ; see Priestly Element, §§ 59-61. 

2. The Place of Worship, §§ 73, 74. 

3. Sacrifice, §§ 83, 84. 

4. Feasts, §§ 96, 97. 

5. The Sabbath, §§ 108, 109. 

6. The Clean and Unclean, §§ 122, 123. 

7. Prayer, §137, 1. 

8. The Vow, § 140, 1. 

9. Blessings and Cursings, § 143, 1. 

10. The Ban, § 146, 1. 

11. The Oath, § 149, 1. 

12. The Fast, § 152, 1. 



32 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

13. Consultation with the Deity through Oracles, Urim and Thum- 
mim, the Ephod, the Lot, § 155, 1. 

14. Consultation with the Deity through Magic, Divination, Sorcery, 
Witchcraft, § 158, 1. 

15. Mourning Customs, § 161, 1. 

16. Circumcision, § 164, 1. 

§ 36. Constructive Study on the Religious Sentiment of the Times. — 

Upon the basis of the material thus collected formulate a general 
statement which will characterize the religious sentiment of the times 
in respect to — 

1. Its purity from superstition. 

2. Its stage of advancement. 

3. Its simplicity or complexity. 

4. Its adaptation to nomadic life. 

5. Its adaptation to agricultural life. 

6. The presence of elements approved or disapproved in later times 
by the prophets. 

7. The presence of elements common to other Semitic religions. 

8. The presence of elements peculiar to the Hebrew religion. 

9. The relative importance of the religious and the moral elements. 

§ 37. Survey Rapidly the Great Characters and Events 
of this period, with a view to ascertaining, in the case of 
each, the peculiar religious significance which it must 
have suggested to the people of the earliest times, e. g. : 

1. The life of Abraham, with its lessons of joyful Gen. 12:1— 25:11. 
communion between Jehovah and his people. 

2. The characters of Isaac and Jacob, suggestive of the Gen. 35:19—50:3. 
low standards of religion and morality prevalent in 
patriarchal times, and of the strife between Israel and the 
neighboring tribes. 

3. The career of Joseph, teaching Jehovah's preserv- Gen. 37:1—50:26. 
ing care of his people and the triumph of true virtue. 

4. The residence in Egypt, welding the captive clans Exod.,cnaps.i; 2. 
into a unit through common suffering, and bringing them 

into contact with the advanced civilization and religion 
of Egypt. 

5. The exodus from Egypt, furnishing convincing Bxod., chaps. 5- 
evidence of Jehovah's care of Israel and his power to 

deliver them from the mightiest foes. 



THE PERIOD OF THE PATRIARCHS AND JUDGES 33 

Exod., chaps. 6. The residence in the wilderness, necessitating a 

16-19; Numb., ° 

chaps. 10-33. simple, abstemious manner of life, and emphasizing the 

nation's absolute dependence upon Jehovah's favor. 

.£.,£•., Exod., 7. The work of Moses in organizing the clans into a 

chaps. 3; 4; 20; 00 

Numb., /«*«»*. nation, giving them a new conception of Jehovah, and 

laying the foundations of their religion. 

Joshua and 8. The lessons of the conquest, which made evident 

Judges, /<m««*. x 

the necessity of hearty co-operation among the clans, 
and showed the superiority of Jehovah to the gods of 
Canaan. 

e. g., Judg., o. The anarchy in the times of the Judges, when the 

chaps.8;n;ia. / . , ' J e ,. . .?,,•, 

nation was in danger of disintegration and was held to- 
gether only by the common worship of Jehovah. 

10. The significance of the settlement in Canaan. 
In this work, the greatest effort must be made to re- 
construct the picture of the times of the event, in dis- 
tinction from those in which the narrative, in each case, 
was written. The question is: What was the significance 
of Abraham, or Moses, or the exodus, or the conquest to 
the people of these early times? We do not, at this point, 
care what the later generations thought. What special 
impression did these great lives and these wonderful 
events make on the people of the times of which they 
were a part ? 

§ 38. Constructive Study. — Consider now the religious progress indi- 
cated by these lives and events, and formulate the same in a series of 
propositions under the following heads : 

1. Faith in the power of Jehovah to deliver. 

2. The consequences of sin. 

3. The reward of righteousness. 

4. The nation's conception of its own future. 

5. Israel's attitude toward other tribes and nations. 

6. The existence of other gods than Jehovah. 

7. The relation of Jehovah to Israel. 

8. The nation's conception of Jehovah. 

§ 39. Constructive Study on the Prophet and Prophetic 

Work. — Study the more important instances in which 

reference is made to the prophet, or his work, viz.: 

Gen. 20:7 (E). Abraham is called a prophet ; Moses is represented as 

Deut. 18:15 (D). calling himself a prophet; the song of "Miriam, the 



34 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

prophetess," upon the overthrow of Pharaoh's army; the Exod.is:2oi,(E) 

prominent part in the overthrow of Sisera's army given judg. 4:4ft. 

to ''Deborah, a prophetess;" and the description of the Numb., chaps. 

22-24 (J and E). 
work of Balaam, the prophet. 

1. Note the fact that all these passages are in narra- 
tives that received their literary form from the hands of 
prophetic editors later than this period, and consider, in 
view of this fact, whether the term "prophet" in each 
case is properly applied to the individual in question. 

2. Upon the basis of these statements, consider how 
comparatively inactive the prophetic function still is at 
this time. 

3. Consider, further, the fact that in this period, 
Israel, like other nations, was accustomed to resort to 
wizards, sorcerers, necromancers, for information con- 
cerning the will of the Deity, and that these classes of 
wonder-workers occupied a large place in the thought 
and life of the people. 

§40. Constructive Study on the Principal Religious Ideas, prophetic 
or otherwise, during this period of patriarchs and judges. From the 
various sources cited — viz., (1) contemporaneous literature (§§27, 28), 
(2) later literature (§§29-31), (3) monumental literature (§§32-34), 

(4) religious institutions as they stood in these periods (§§35, 36), 

(5) the great characters and events, as distinguished from the history 
of them prepared in later times (§§37, 38) — let us endeavor to for- 
mulate the religious ideas as they were entertained in those days : 

1. As relating to God and the supernatural world. — (a) What, for 
example, was the opinion held among the people at large concerning 
Jehovah ? What are some of the explanations of the origin of the word 
Jehovah? What conception of the Deity is involved in each of these 
explanations ? What other names of the Deity were employed in this 
period ? Is there evidence that any effort was being made by certain 
leaders to introduce a conception of the Deity quite different from that 
held by the mass of the people ? What attributes of God are receiving 
special emphasis at this time ? Are there in the contemporaneous 
literature references to Jehovah as the God of creation ? (fr) Do the 
people of the times believe in the existence and manifestation of 
angels ? If so, what relation do these angels sustain to God ? Are there 
other superhuman beings who have power over human life and fortune ? 
(e) What is the opinion of the times (that is, of the leaders as well as 



THE PERIOD OF THE PATRIARCHS AND JUDGES 35 

the masses) concerning spirits ? Were these spirits always evil ? Was 
there any connection between these spirits and the spirits of dead 
ancestors ? What common methods of sorcery, witchcraft, and necro- 
mancy were employed among the people ? What attitude toward all 
this was assumed by the later writers ? What evidence is there that in 
the period itself these practices were discountenanced ? 

2. As relating to ma?t. — (a) What may be regarded as the sub- 
stantial consensus of this period as to the origin of man, his relation 
to the Deity, his relation to the animal world, his future place in the 
world-economy ? (b) What conceptions of sin and guilt exist at this 
time, and in what relationship do these conceptions stand to the idea 
of God commonly entertained ? Define sin, as the people understood 
it; and the relationship of guilt to sin. (e) In what way was atone- 
ment made for sin ? Was it really in any proper sense atonement ? 
(d) What was their conception of the future world ? In what sense 
was death understood to be related to sin, and sin to death ? How did 
the belief in the return of the spirits of the dead bear upon all this ? 

3. As relating to Israel's future. — (a) Was Israel yet a nation? 
Were there any really national conceptions? Had reference been 
made to the coming "day of Jehovah"? (#) How did the anticipa- 
tion and realization of possessing the Holy Land prepare the way for 
ideas of Israel's future ? (c) Is there yet any doctrine of the future of 
the outside nations, i. e., the heathen ? (d) Has there been any certain 
reference to a messianic king, or to a royal order ? (e) Accepting the 
early origin of the substance of Deut., chap. 18, what steps have been 
taken toward the establishment of the prophetic order, and what is the 
logical connection of this order with the practices of witchcraft, etc., 
for which it was to be a substitute ? 

4. As relating to ethical standards and worship. — (a) What is a rea- 
sonable statement describing the standard of morality prevalent in 
those days ? Was it the same in general for individuals and for the 
nation ? Or can there be detected a difference ? (b) To what extent, 
if at all, had emphasis been placed on the idea of personal and national 
righteousness ? Was there such a thing 2& faith in those days ? If so, 
faith in what, or in whom? Define the words "faith" and "right- 
eousness," as they seem to be used, (e) What conception do the 
people have concerning a so-called covenant-relationship between them 
and Jehovah ? What did this call for on their part ? on his ? (d) Is 
the routine of worship in this period simple or complicated ? pure or 



36 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

corrupt ? What, briefly, were the principal factors at the beginning of 
the period? What new elements have crept in during the period? 
Have these debased or elevated the older form ? Was there any good 
derived from contact with these new elements ? If so, what ? If not, 
how may we explain the divine providence in bringing the older form 
into touch with the new ? 



CHAPTER IV. 

PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE DAVIDIC PERIOD. 

§41. The Scope of This Period is that of the United Kingdom, com- 
mencing with Samuel's birth and closing with the disruption of the 
United Kingdom after Solomon's death. It includes, therefore, (1) 
the period of Samuel and the beginning of the monarchy under Saul, 
(2) the establishment of Jerusalem as the capital city of Israel, (3) the 
organization of the kingdom, (4) the work of David, (5) the sudden 
development of Israel as a world-power, (6) the building of the temple, 
(7) the further adjustment of Israel's affairs to the outside nations, (8) 
the work of Solomon. 

§42. The Character of the Period is distinctly prophetic, as is evi- 
denced by the large influence of Samuel, Gad, and Nathan upon the 
conduct of public affairs. The earlier nomadic customs and character- 
istics had practically disappeared, and had given place to the usages 
and activities of agricultural and urban life. The long struggle against 
the Canaanites for the possession of the land had driven the isolated clans 
and tribes closer together, and rendered them more and more conscious 
of their inner unity. Their common dependence upon, and worship 
of, Jehovah as their war-god had strengthened this tendency toward a 
unified life. With a considerable addition to the national possessions 
derived from the Canaanites the people rose above their Canaanitish 
neighbors and moved forward in what proved to be a most rapid 
course of development. The prophets appeared as exponents of the 
spirit of nationalism, and contributed much to the organization and 
development of the nation. This period was thus the birth-period of 
both prophecy and national life — two forces which continued their 
development in the closest possible connection with each other, and 
finally passed off the stage of history together. In these early days of 
national existence the life of the nation was strong and vigorous, 
abounding in energy and hope. Prophecy was establishing standards 
of life and thought which were to serve as guides in all its future devel- 
opment. It was in large measure a period of organization. The great 
change which came during this period may be measured by the differ- 
ence in the gift thought worthy of a king; compare the gift brought to 
Saul by David (1 Sam. 16: 20) with that of the queen of Sheba to Solo- 
mon (1 Kings 10: 2). 

37 



38 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

§43. The Contemporary Literary Sources of this period 
are few, and only in part prophetic. The literary activity 
of the prophets has not yet begun. The determination 
of these sources is attended with much difficulty (cf. §3). 
Entire agreement has not yet been reached. The follow- 
ing pieces, in whole or in part, may, however, be regarded 
as the literary product of this period : 

1. The original form of the Song of Hannah upon 1 Sam. 2:1-10. 
the occasion of the birth of her son, Samuel. 

2. The elegy of David upon Saul and Jonathan, in 2 Sam. 1 : 19-27. 
which expression is given to David's feeling of personal 
bereavement and national loss. 

3. David's lament over Abner, in which he mourns 2Sam. 3:33, 34. 
the death of Abner and expresses his indignation at the 
treachery of the assassin. 

4. Nathan's parable of the one ewe lamb, which carries 2 Sam. 12 : 1-15. 
home to David the lesson of the selfishness and enormity 

of his crime against Uriah, the Hittite. 

5. The "last words of David" which in their present 2 Sam. 23:1-7. 
form have been much edited by later hands. 

6. Possibly some Davidic psalms. Ps. 18. 

7. Other psalms, in case there are any Davidic psalms ; 
it is not reasonable to suppose that there was only one 
psalmist in a period of a century, if psalm-writing had 
been entered upon at all. 

8. Solomon's address at the dedication of the temple 1 Kings 8 : 12-26. 
which is in its present form permeated by the Deutero- 

nomic spirit. 

9. Solomon's work as a "wise" man interested in the 1 Kings 4: 29-34. 
phenomena of nature and of human life and conduct. 

10. Additions to the Book of the Covenant made Exod., chaps. 21- 

23. 
from time to time as the life of the nation expanded and 

the need of further legislation was felt. 

11. The final revision of the Balaam oracles. Numb., chaps. 23, 

24. 

12. The books (now lost) of the Wars of Jehovah and Numb.2i:i4;jos. 

£ T Z. / C \ IO:i2,I3; 

ot Jashar (see § 29). 2 Sam. 1 : 17-27. 

§ 44. Constructive Study. — In the case of each of the pieces cited in 
§43, consider the following suggestions: 

1. Ascertain the various views concerning the time of the origin of 
the piece, together with the grounds on which its assignment to this 
period rests. 



PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE DAVIDIC PERIOD 39 

2. Separate carefully those portions of the piece which may fairly 
be regarded as having had their origin later than about 920 B. C, and 
indicate the reasons for this separation. 

3. Describe the historical background of the piece in as close detail 
as possible. 

4. Indicate succinctly the content of the piece — what, as a matter 
of fact, is said in it ? 

5. Try to connect the content with the historical setting and to dis- 
cover the underlying purpose of the piece. 

6. Formulate the principal teachings, the most vital thought, which 
the piece contains. 

§45. Later Literary Sources furnishing information 
relating to this period, and throwing light upon (1) the 
institutions, (2) the important lives and events, (3) the 
utterances of the principal characters, are to be found in 
certain documents or books, the date of which falls a 
considerable time after the events they describe. This 
material, ordinarily called tradition, represents more 
accurately the point of view of the later age in which 
it took its present literary form, than that of the age 
which it describes. The following are the principal 
pieces falling under this head : 

1. An early history of the times of Saul and David, 1 Sam.g: 1—10:16; 

r r 1 • r 1 Chap. II I 13 : 2— 

forming one of the constituent sources of the present 14 152 116:14-23; 
books of Samuel, and characterized by the primitive 19:11-17; 21:2- 

10* 22 * if 6~2^ * 

nature of its religious and theological conceptions, by 23:1-14; chaps! 

2S~27 2Q 30* 2 

its realistic style, and by its lenient attitude toward the Sam.' chaps.' 1- 
life and work of Saul. 1 4,6,9:1-21:14, 

2. A second history of the times of Saul and David, lSam L x .'?i"~ 3 »i 

j » 3:1-7:1; 7:3-17; 

coming from a somewhat later time and from a different 8; x * :x7 ~? 5 .» "' 

15 ; 16:1-13 517:1 

point of view, forming another constituent element of ~ x8:5;i8:i4-ig; 

* ' o 18:30 — 19:10; 19: 

x The analysis of the books of Samuel here given is that of H. P. Smith in The 
International Critical Commentary on Samuel (1899). Reference may also be made 
to the commentaries of Thenius-Lohr (1898), Budde (1902), Nowack (1902), and 
Kennedy (1905); Budde's edition of the text in the Polychrome Bible (1894); 
Wellhausen, Composition des Hexateuchs und der historischen Bucher des Alten 
Testaments (3d ed. 1899); Kittel, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 22 ff.; Driver, 
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed. 1897), pp. 172-85 ; Sten- 
ning, art. "Samuel" in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV (1902); Stade, 
art. "Samuel" in Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. IV (1903); Cheyne, Devout Study of 
Criticism, pp. 1-126. 



40 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



18-24; 21:11-16; the present books of Samuel, and characterized by the 

22:3-5; 23: 11 — 

24:26; 28531; large share of attention given to the life and work of 

2 Sam., chaps. 

5-8. Samuel, by a considerable measure of idealization, and 

by an unmistakably theological point of view. 

1 Sam. 10:25^-27; ? Later additions to the earlier histories by an editor 

11:12-14. ^ ■' 

dominated by the spirit and teachings of the book of 
Deuteronomy. 
1 Sam. 2:1-11; a. Still later additions by another Deuteronomic 

13:1520:1— ai :i; J 

2 Sam. 21: 15-22; editor who gathered up and carefully edited various frag- 

22 : 1 — 23 : 29. or j o 

ments pertaining to the history of earlier times. 

5. The various sources incorporated in the first eleven 

chapters of the first book of Kings, which deal with the 

closing days of David's reign and the entire reign of 

1 Kings 1:1—2: Solomon; viz., (a) a narrative of David's last days which 

2a ;2 : 5-9, 13-46. 

perhaps belonged originally in the books of Samuel ; 
"shSm-* (^) a " book of tne acts of Solomon," probably a list of 
7-S^I'm' court annals; (c) records drawn from the archives of the 

3 i 5 s-2 3 v l6 ~iii- 5: tera pl e compiled by the priests; (d) a pre-Deuteronomic 

14; 10:1-10; xx : life f Solomon ; (e) the work of the Deuteronomic editor 
14-31. ' • ' 

2:10-12; 3:14*.; who compiled the book, supplied the "framework," and 
8:14-43,54-9:9; r rr ' 

9:15-22; xx :x- added much else from his own hand; (/) the work of 
13. v ' 

8:44-53. the post-exilic editor, controlled by priestly influences, 

who supplemented the book with various materials 

intended to render it more edifying for the people of his 

own day. 2 

1 Chron. 10:1— 6. The Chronicler's narrative of the reigns of David 

2Chron. 10:19. 

and Solomon compiled about 200 or 300 B. C. The 

spirit and tone of this work are priestly, its interest being 

especially in the religious institutions and the law. The 

E.g., 1 Chron. main sources of this narrative were (a) the present books of 
10:1-12; 11 :i-g; v ' 

14:1-16. Samuel and Kings, or possibly a midrash of these books ; 

I Chron. 29:29; 2 (h\ a collection of prophetic writings such as "the his- 

Chron. 9 : 29. v ' r r ° 

tory of Samuel the Seer," "the history of Nathan the 

2 For the analysis of the books of Kings see the commentaries of Kittel (1900), 
Skinner (1904), and Benzinger (1899); Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexa- 
teuchs und der historischen Biicher des Alien Testaments (3d ed. 1899), pp. 266-302, 
359-61 ; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed. 1897), 
pp. 185-205; C. F. Burney, art. "Kings," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. 

II (1899); W. R. Smith and E. Kautzsch, art. "Kings," Encyclopedia Biblica, 
Vol. II (1901); C. F. Burney, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Kings 
( I 9°3)> PP- ix-xix ; Stade and Schwally, The Books of Kings (Polychrome Bible, 
1904). 



PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE DAVIDIC PERIOD 4 1 

prophet," "the history of Gad the seer," "the prophecy 

of Ahijah the Shilonite," and "the visions of Iddo the 1 Chron. 11:41*- 

seer:" (c) old genealogical and official lists: (d) the E - s>* \ Chron. 

3 v ' ° ° ' \ / 15:16-24; 29:10- 

Chronicler's own editorial contribution. 3 30. 

§ 46. Constructive Work. — It is important to make use of these later 
traditions, and to this end it is suggested that, in the case of each of 
these collections or documents, indicated in §45, the student — 

1. Secure from some authority the actual Scripture material which 
scholars are accustomed to regard as included in it. 

2. Consider the various points which are thought to be character- 
istic of it. 

3. Study closely the times in which it is claimed to have had its 
origin, and the important ideas of those times. 

4. Note the "traditions" given concerning these early times which 
form the basis of this study, and distinguish the sympathies and antipa- 
thies which have been transferred from the later period. 

5. Sum up briefly the essential events and ideas which, after due 
allowance has been made for such transference, may fairly be regarded 
as belonging to the period described. 

§ 47. Monumental Sources illustrating the history of this period 
include, among other material : 

1. The inscriptions of contemporary kings of Assyria, showing that 
Assyria's energies were occupied in other directions, so that the 
Hebrews were left free to expand their territory and enlarge their 
influence under David and Solomon. 

See G.S.Goodspeed, A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians (1902), pp. 178— 
84 ; McCurdy, History, Prophecy, and the Monuments, Vol. I ( 1 894), pp. 2 1 9-23 ; Paton, 
Early History of Syria and Palestine (1901), pp. 1 76-9 1 ; Rogers, A History of Baby- 
lonia and Assyria, Vol. II (1900), pp. 35-45 ; Winckler, Geschichte Babyloniens und 
Assyriens (1892), pp. 176-81 ; Idem, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 
3d ed., Vol. I (1902), pp. 38L ; Tiele, Babylonisch-assyrische Geschichte (1886), 
pp. 167, 178. 

2. The contemporary Egyptian records, showing that Egypt was 
paralyzed by internal struggles for supremacy, thus interposing no 
obstacle to the rapid development of Israel. 

3 On the sources of Chronicles see: Kittel, Die Biicher der Chronik ("Hand- 
kommentar z. A. T.," 1902); Benzinger, Die Biicher der Chronik (" Kurzer Hand- 
Commentar z. A. T.," 1901); Barnes, The Books of Chronicles (Cambridge Bible 
1899); Kittel, The Books of Chronicles in Hebrew (Polychrome Bible, 1895) 
Francis Brown, art. "Chronicles," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898) 
Driver, art. " Chronicles," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. 1(1899); Driver, Introduction, 
etc., pp. 516-40. 



42 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

See Maspero, The Struggle oj the Nations (1896), pp. 756-72; Ed. Meyer, 
Geschichte des Alterthtims, Vol. I (1884), pp. 380-82; Wiedemann, Aegyptische 
Geschichte (1884), pp. 527-42; Budge, A History of Egypt, Vol. VI (1902), pp. 33-60. 

§ 48. Constructive Study. — Prepare a brief statement of the essential 
facts in the history of Assyria and Egypt during this period, with 
especial reference to their bearing on the life and thought of Israel. 

§49. Study the Institutions expressive of religious thought as they 
existed in this period, in general (see my Priestly Element in the Old 
Testament [1905], §§ 15, 16), and in particular, viz.: 

1. The Priest; see Priestly Element, §§59-61. 

2. The Place of Worship, §§ 73, 74. 

3. Sacrifice, §§ 83, 84. 

4. Feasts, §§ 96, 97. 

5. The Sabbath, §§ 108, 109. 

6. The Clean and Unclean, §§ 122, 123. 

7. Prayer, §137, 1. 

8. The Vow, § 140, 1. 

9. Blessings and Cursings, § 143, 1. 

10. The Ban, § 146, 1. 

11. The Oath, § 149, 1. 

12. The Fast, § 152, 1. 

13. Consultation with the Deity through Oracles, Urim and Thum- 
mim, the Ephod, and the Lot, § 155, 1. 

14. Consultation with the Deity through Magic, Divination, Sor- 
cery, and Witchcraft, § 158, 1. 

15. Mourning Customs, § 161, 1. 

16. Circumcision, § 164, 1. 

From the above materials select only such as belong to the par- 
ticular period under consideration here. 

§50. Constructive Study on the Non-Prophetic Religious Sentiment of 
the Times. — Upon the basis of the material indicated in §49, formulate 
a general statement which will characterize the non-prophetic religious 
sentiment of the times in respect to — 

1. Its purity from superstition. 

2. Its stage of advancement. 

3. Its simplicity or complexity. 

4. Its adaptation to agricultural life. 

5. The presence of elements approved or disapproved by the con- 
temporary or later prophets. 

6. The presence of elements common to other Semitic religions. 



PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE DAVIDIC PERIOD 43 

7. The presence of elements peculiar to the Hebrew religion. 

8. The relative importance of the religious and moral elements. 

§51. Survey Rapidly the Great Characters and Events 
of this period, with a view to ascertaining, in the case of 
each, the particular religious significance which it must 
have suggested to the people of those days, viz.: 

1. The life and judgeship of Samuel as an example of 1 Sam. 3:1—4:1 ; 

J ° L L 7:1 12:25, CtC. 

unimpeachable integrity. 

2. The founding of the kingdom as an evidence of 1 Sam. 8:4— 11:15. 

the growing consciousness of unity among the clans. 

-*. The reign of Saul, with its constant wars, the per- 1 Sam. 13:1 — 
° r 2 Sam. 1:27. 

secution of David, the friendship of David and Jonathan, 

and the final overthrow at Mount Gilboa. 

4. The reign of David, at first in Judah, then over all 2 Sam. 2 :i— 

• , , 1 • - , • r 1 x Kings 2:11. 

Israel, with the resulting wide extension of territory and 

great increase of wealth and power. 

5. The significance of the capture of Jerusalem and 2 Sam. 5:6-16. 
its establishment as the national capital. 

6. The many wars of David, with almost uninter- 2 Sam. 5:17-25; 
rupted victory, as an evidence of Jehovah's favor and 1-19, etc. 
power. 

7. The reign of Solomon, with all its wealth, pomp, 1 Kings 2:1a— n: 

43 • 
and magnificence, and the corresponding deterioration 

of national vigor and virtue. 

8. The erection of the temple and its significance in 1 Kings 6:1-38. 
the development of Hebrew worship. 

9. The relations of Israel with the outside world ; 

e. g., the hostility with the Philistines, Ammonites, 2 Sam. 5:17-25; 

8:1-14; 10:1-19; 
Amalekites, etc.; the treaties with Phoenicia under David s:nf.; 1 Kings 

and Solomon ; the treaty with Egypt in Solomon's reign ; i3f.'; 9:a6ff. • 

and Solomon's general attitude toward foreign peoples. 

10. The internal relations of Israel during this 

period; e. g., the dissatisfaction occasioned by the injus- 1 Sam. 2:11-17; 
tice and oppression of Eli's sons and of Samuel's sons; sif.', 19-22; 19: 

11 • T»1 H. -. • *8 26:25; 

the absolute inability to resent Philistine oppression in 2Sam.3:i— 

certain periods of Samuel's activity; the civil war be- 1:5-53:2:13-25; 

tween Saul and David; the existence of two distinct 9:15-23; 11:26- 

40. 
governments for seven years after the death of Saul ; the 

revolts of Absalom and Shimei ; the influence of Joab ; 

the conspiracy of Adonijah ; the organization of the king- 



44 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

i Kings 5:13-16; dom under Solomon; the existence of a standing army; 

Q " IS~22 | XI * 26— 

40; 12:4. the exaction of forced labor for Solomon's building 

operations ; the flight of Jeroboam ; the despotic charac- 
ter of Solomon. 

In doing this work bear in mind the suggestions 
made at the close of § 37. 

On this period of Hebrew history see : Ewald, History of 
Israel, Vol. Ill ; WELLHAUSEN, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, 
pp. 448-56; Kittel, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 103-96; 
Kent, A History of the Hebrew People, Vol. I, pp. 113-206; Cor- 
NILL, History of the People of Israel, pp. 56-95 ; Ottley, A Short 
History of the Hebrews to the Roman Period, pp. 120-57 ; Wade, Old 
Testament History, pp 213-311; H. P. Smith, Old Testament 
History, pp. 106-76; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, pp. 
197-343; Guthe, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 68-128. 

Also the various articles in Encyclopaedias and Bible Diction- 
aries on "Samuel," "Saul," "David," "Jonathan," "Solomon," etc. 

§52. Constructive Study. — Consider now the religious progress 
indicated by these lives and events, and formulate the same in a series 
of propositions under the following heads : 

1. The nation's conception of Jehovah. 

2. The relation of Jehovah to Israel. 

3. The existence of other gods than Jehovah. 

4. Faith in the power of Jehovah to deliver. 

5. Israel's conception of its own future. 

6. Israel's attitude toward other peoples. 

7. The reward of righteousness. 

8. The consequences of sin. 

9. The standard of conduct. 

10. The average state of morals and religion. 

11. The religious aspects of the monarchy. 

12. The character of David. 

§ 53. Constructive Study on the Prophet and Prophetic 
Work. — Study the more important instances in which 
the prophet appears or reference is made to his work, viz.: 

1 Sam. g:6ff.,2o. 1. The reputation and influence of Samuel as a 

" seer," or soothsayer. 

1 Sam. 10:9-13; 2. The relation of Saul to the prophets, and his own 

16 :i4 ff. ... . , , . . . .. . iL . 

participation in the prophetic spirit. Consider in this 
connection the significance of the "evil spirit" which 
troubled Saul. 



PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE DAVIDIC PERIOD 45 

3. The higher work of Samuel as a teacher of right- 1 Sam. 12:1-5515: 
eousness and the dominant councilor in national affairs. 

4. The story of the witch of Endor, and the insight 1 Sam. 28 : 3-25. 
it affords into current conceptions of religion. 

5. The careers of Nathan and Gad, their relation to 1 Sam. 22:5; 2 

the king, their political influence, and their fearless 1 :ff. • 24 :«ff. ; 2 

Kings, chap. 1. 
utterance. 

6. The prophetic guilds, their relation to Samuel, iSam.ioisff.jio: 

20-24. 
the ecstatic and fanatical character of their work, their 

resemblance to the modern dervish, their communal life, 
their political influence, and their significance as repre- 
sentatives of the original Jehovah religion and opponents 
of all Canaanitish innovations. 

7. The relation of David to the prophets, as seen in 

the friendly counsel given him by Gad when Saul was iSam. 22:5. 

seeking to kill him; in his attitude when rebuked by 2 Sam. 12:1-15. 

Nathan; in his willingness to surrender the privilege of 2 Sam. 7:1-17. 
building the temple to his successor in accordance with 

Nathan's word; in the part played by Nathan in deter- 1 Kings chap. 1. 

mining the choice of David's successor; in his submis- 2 Sam. 24 : n. ff . 
sion to the rebuke of Gad upon the occasion of the 
census; and in his spirit and character in general. 

8. The attitude of Solomon toward the prophets, as 1 Kings 1 :8, 10-27, 

OO— oft A A f * O # T * 

inferred from the part taken by Nathan in securing the 5: iff'.; ii':i-8| 
throne for him ; from the autocratic character of this 
king; from his tolerance of non-Israelitish religions and 
his treaties and marriages with several pagan peoples ; 
and from the attitude of the prophets toward the disrup- 
tion under his successor. 

§ 54. Constructive Study on the Principal Prophetic Ideas prevalent 
during this period. In the light of the various sources of information 
previously cited — viz., (1) contemporaneous Hebrew literature (§§43, 
44); (2) later Hebrew literature (§§45, 46); (3) monumental literature 
(§§47,48); (4) the religious institutions found existing during this 
period (§§49, 50); (5) the great characters and events, as distinguished 
from the history of them prepared in later times (§§51, 52); (6) the 
character of the prophets and their methods of work (§53) — let us 
endeavor to formulate the contribution of the prophets to the religious 
ideas entertained by their contemporaries : 



46 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

i. As relating to God and the supernatural world. — (a) What was 
the conception of Jehovah prevalent among the people at large ? 
Does this popular idea of God show any advance upon the correspond- 
ing idea in the previous period ? What phases of the divine activity 
were especially impressed upon the popular consciousness ? Was 
Jehovah looked upon as the only God? What was the significance of 
the use of a special, proper name — viz. Jehovah — for God? What 
was the attitude of the people toward the gods of other nations ? 
What was the relation of Jehovah to these foreign gods ? What was 
the significance of the ban ? Did the lives and teachings of the 
prophets tend to change the conception of Jehovah in any important 
respects ? What does the existence of a class of prophets and seers in 
itself imply as to the relation of God to man ? How was the idea of 
God related, on the one hand to the development and organization of 
the national spirit, and on the other to the appearance of the prophets in 
connection with this national life ? Upon what phases of the divine 
character did the prophets lay emphasis ? (b) Is there any evidence 
that the people or the prophets of this period believed in the existence 
and manifestation of angels ? If so, what was the function of such 
beings and their relation to God ? Were there any other superhuman 
beings who had power over human life and fortune ? (e) What was 
the opinion of the times concerning spirits ? Were these spirits 
always evil ? Was there any connection between them and the spirits 
of departed ancestors ? What was the feeling of the times toward 
sorcery, soothsaying, witchcraft, and necromancy? Did the prophets 
of the period oppose such practices? Were these customs in them- 
selves inconsistent with true prophecy? If so, why? 

2. As relating to man. — (a) Did any new teaching appear in this 
period concerning the origin of man, his relation to God, his relation 
to the animal world, and his future place in the world-economy? Was 
the estimate of the value of human life a high one ? (b) What were 
the existing ideas of sin and guilt, and how were they related to the 
existing idea of God ? Did the contemporaneous prophets impart any 
new meaning to the word sin ? What was the effect of sin upon man's 
relation to God and upon God's attitude toward man ? Was sin con- 
ceived of by the prophets as primarily a violation of ceremonial or 
ethical laws ? What sins were most denounced by the prophets of these 
times ? (c) How was atonement made for sin ? Was there any 
progress in this respect beyond the ideas of the previous period ? 
What is the significance in this connection of the practice of blood- 



PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE DAVIDIC PERIOD 47 

revenge ? How did the teachings of the prophets affect the situation ? 
(d) What was the view of death and the future world ? Was there any 
relation between the idea of sin and that of death ? How did the 
beliefs concerning death and the future influence the present life ? 

3. As relating to Israel's future. — What was the influence of Israel's 
'unification into a nation upon the conception of her future ? What 

especially important steps were taken in this period in the progress of 
the idea of Israel's future? How did the splendor and power of 
David and Solomon influence the development of the idea? How did 
the establishment of Jerusalem as the national capital and the building 
of the temple there affect the idea ? Was there yet any teaching con- 
cerning the Messiah ? What was the significance of prophecy in 
relation to the nation's future ? Was there any teaching concerning the 
future relation of Israel to the outside nations ? Was there any doctrine 
of the "Day of Jehovah"? 

4. As relating to ethical standards and worship. — (a) Was the stand- 
ard of morality prevailing in these times high or low ? Was there any 
distinction between national and individual morality? Were morals 
and religion dissociated and independent of each other, or were they 
inseparably connected ? Was the prophetic standard of ethics a uni- 
formly high one ? Did the prophets contribute anything to the current 
idea of righteousness ? Did they emphasize either ethics or religion, 
the one more than the other ? Is there any evidence of the existence 
of an attitude of faith on the part of the worshipers of Jehovah ? If so, 
how was it manifested ? (b) Was the idea of a covenant-relationship 
between Jehovah and Israel modified or enriched in any way? What 
demands did it make upon the two parties to the covenant ? (c) What 
was the influence of the building of the temple upon the ideas of wor- 
ship ? Was the worship of the period in general purer and more spir- 
itual than heretofore, or had it deteriorated ? What was the effect of 
continued contact with Baalism, and other worships tolerated by Solo- 
mon ? Did the prophets of the period take any position with refer- 
ence to the nature and conduct of worship? What was their attitude 
toward the building of the temple, the offering of sacrifice at the local 
shrines, etc.? Were they deeply interested in these things ? 

§55. Literature to be Consulted. 

On the prophets and prophecy of this period see: Schultz, Old Testament 
Theology (1868, 5th ed. 1896, transl. 1892), Vol. I, pp. 151-57; Kuenen, The 
Prophets and Prophecy in Israel (1875, transl. 1877), PP« 369 f., 392f., 564-67 ; W. R. 
Smith, The Prophets of Israel (1882, new ed. 1895), pp. 391 f. ; Orelli,<9/</ Testament 



48 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Prophecy (1882, transl. 1885), pp. 148-57; Briggs, Messianic Prophecy (1886), pp. 
121-52; Piepenbring, The Theology of the Old Testament (1886, transl. 1893), pp. 
II-20; MONTEFIORE, The Religion of 'the Ancient Hebrews (1892), pp. 72-83; Cornill, 
The Prophets of Israel (1894, transl. 3d ed. 1898), pp. 1-15 ; Budde, Religion of Israel 
to the Exile (1899), PP- 88-1 11 ; S. A. Cook, "Notes on the Composition of 2 Samuel," 
American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVI (1900), pp. 145-77 ; 
White, art. "Nathan," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1900); 
Stenning, art. "Samuel," ibid., Vol. IV (1902); Davidson, art. "Prophecy and 
Prophets," ibid., Vol. IV (1902), pp. 109 f . ; S. A. Cook, art. "Nathan," Encyclopcedia 
Biblica, Vol. HI (1902); Cheyne, art. "Prophetic Literature," §§4, 5, ibid.; Stade, 
art. "Samuel," ibid., Vol. IV (1903); Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy (1904), 
pp. 40-61 ; Batten, The Hebrew Prophet (1905), pp. 161-76. 

Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelilischen Prophetenthums (1883), pp. 30-59 ; 
Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (1893, 2d ed. 1899), §5; 
Marti, Geschichte der israelilischen Religion (3d ed. 1897), pp. 79-91 ; Kraetzschmar, 
Prophet und Seher im alten Israel (1901); Kurtz, Zur Psychologie der vorexilischen 
Prophetie in Israel (1904). 

Also the commentaries on Samuel and Kings cited in notes I and 2, pp. 39, 40. 

On the so-called "schools of the prophets" see especially: Kuenen, The 
prophets and Prophecy in Israel, pp. 46 ff.; L. W. Batten, The Hebrew Prophet, pp. 
42-72; Kautzsch in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. V, pp. 652 ft.; 
"Kraetzschmar, Prophet und Seher im alten Israel; Kittel, Prophetie und Weis- 
sagung; G. Rothstein, "Herkunft und urspriingliches Wesen der israelitischen 
Prophetie," Studierstube, 1 905, pp. 323-331, and the list of literature on p. 81. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM IN THE NORTHERN 

KINGDOM. 

§56. The Scope of this Period is that of the Northern as distinguished 
from the Southern kingdom. It commences with the revolt of the 
Northern tribes under Jeroboam I. (933 B. C), an event incited by the 
prophets; and closes with the fall of Samaria (721 B. C), an event 
foretold by the prophets in considerable minuteness. This period 
includes : 

1. The more or less successful efforts of Northern Israel to establish 
herself in spite of wars with Judah (933-887 B. C), with Syria (890-790 
B. C), and with Assyria (854-721 B. C). 

2. Three successive and prolonged struggles: (1) of Jeroboam 
I. and his successors against misfortune of every kind, intensified by 
disorganization and confusion, until Omri builds Samaria and makes it 
the central and controlling factor in the kingdom (933-885 B. C.) ; 
(2) of Omri's dynasty and that of Jehu, against the prophets Elijah, 
Elisha, and their followers who were unwilling that the worship of 
Jehovah should be contaminated by the impurities of Baalism (885— 
784); (3) of Jeroboam II. and his successors, against Assyria on the 
one hand, and on the other against the prophets Amos, Hosea, and 
Isaiah, who recognized in Assyria the instrument in Jehovah's hands 
for Israel's punishment and destruction (784-721 B. C). 

3. Three startling and indeed significant movements of prophetic 
character, each seemingly revolutionary, but each, when viewed closely, 
passing onward into the next, the three together constituting the real 
foundations of prophecy; viz., (1) the prophetic revolt from despotism 
and priest-control at the time of Solomon's death which alone fur- 
nished opportunity for the freedom demanded for prophetic growth ; 
(2) the assumption by the prophets of a power superior to that of 
kings, in their determined effort to rid themselves of the injurious 
influence of outside religious cults ; and (3) the transition, made neces- 
sary by the situation, from the primitive methods and ideas of the 
earliest prophets, to the more permanent and efficient work of the 
writing prophets, of whom Amos was, perhaps, the first. 

4. Three contests of great importance in world-history; (1) the 
battle of Karkar, 854 B. C, in which Israel's military forces (in union 

49 



50 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

with the armies of other nations) first met defeat at the hands of 
Assyria; (2) the Syro-Ephraimitish campaign (735 B. C.) against Judah, 
the end of which was the fall of Damascus (732 B. C.) ; (3) the siege 
of Samaria and its final destruction in 721 B. C. 

§57. The Character of the Period has been partly indicated in the 
statement of its scope (§56). If we attempt to think of it as a whole, 
covering two centuries and more, we are able, in spite of the great 
variety which it presents, to distinguish certain predominant features : 

1. There is almost always to be noted a condition of disorganiza- 
tion and confusion which very frequently becomes anarchy. At no 
time does the government seem to have been regarded as stable. This 
was due in part, at least, to the prevalence of a democratic spirit, a 
spirit without which prophecy could not have been developed. While 
this is the home situation, the foreign relations are even worse, resulting 
in continuous wars with one or another of the outside powers (see §56). 

2. It is evidently a period during the progress of which a great 
transition is taking place, e.g., from agricultural life and residence in 
villages, to military life and residence in cities — a change due to the 
warlike character of the times. Little of the pastoral life remains. 
Mercantile ideas and influences prevail. This has come about in large 
measure because of the wars. And with this change have come great 
wealth, and, particularly in the reigns of Jeroboam II. in Israel and of 
Uzziah in Judah, great prosperity. These are Israel's days of greatest 
splendor, and are due, in large measure, to the peace which followed 
the Syrian wars. 

3. In these years Israel is in the fullest sense an independent world- 
power — one of the lesser kind, in contest with "the restless aggressive- 
ness of the gigantic empire of Assyria." This was in accordance with 
the divine plan, which involved a close contact of Israel and Judah, 
for educational purposes, with all the great world-powers of antiquity. 
Israel never was an isolated nation, and never was intended to be, until 
long after the Babylonian exile. As a part of this general movement 
there came to Israel a closer intercourse with foreign nations. This 
brought about a widening of her intellectual horizon, a stronger 
and deeper sense on the part of the true leaders, of her own indi- 
viduality, and of her mission to the world. For in proportion as she 
lost her place as a nation, in that proportion was her great vocation 
realized. With all the bad that came from intimacy with these outside 
nations, there came much that was good. This good, while not suffi- 
cient to save Northern Israel from destruction, was handed down in 
various ways to the great advantage of posterity. 



BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 5 1 

4. The religious zeal of the times was marked ; but while outwardly- 
flourishing, there was corruption within. Tainted with impurity, 
abounding in pagan customs, given over to magic, necromancy, and 
superstitious rites of every kind, the more rigidly it was observed, the 
less of true religion really existed. The immorality of the period was 
most flagrant; shameless sensuality prevailed everywhere. Violence 
and robbery, murder and corruption were rampant. 

5. It is, however, the period of all periods in Israelitish history, 
in which the prophet has largest place. It is true that he is always in 
opposition to the governing power; but his opposition is so strong 
that it means a large measure of control. He was Israel's adviser, and 
had his guidance been freely accepted the pages of history would have 
told a far different story. At the same time, these changes in government 
and these many wars with hostile neighbors, this transition in method 
of life, and the opportunities afforded by increased wealth, this position 
as a world-power in contact with other world-powers; even this false 
religious zeal, and the immoral activity of the times — all this furnishes 
an experience, an object lesson, a text for prophetic appeal and for the 
announcement of divine law, which was to educate some of those who 
lived then, and more of those who were to follow. 

§ 58. The Contemporaneous Literary Work of this period is very large 
in quantity, and of the highest value. This, in fact, is the age in which 
Israel comes to literary consciousness. Our greatest difficulty lies in 
the abundance and the richness of this material. The following may 
be regarded as a rough catalogue of the most important prophetic 
material. Distinction is to be made between the literature produced 
in Northern Israel, and that coming from Judah. For the sake of con- 
venience we may arrange this material in three groups : 

A. Narrative Literature, produced in this period, which relates to 
times preceding 933 B. C. These works are of especial interest in that 
their spirit and purpose belong to the times under consideration. 
They were written to meet the problems of these times; and, present- 
ing as they do the sympathies and antipathies of the period, they form 
a true expression of the inner thought. Here may be placed : 

1 . The great prophetic narrative of Judah, J. x This narrative begins 
''Gen. 2 =43—4:25; 7 : 1-5, 7-10, 12, 17^, 22 f . ; 8:23, 3a, 6-12, 133, 20 f.; 18; I — 

20:38; 24:1-67; 29:1-14, 31-35; 30:3^-16, 22b-T ) la, 34-38^, 39, 400, 40^-43; 

31 : 1, 17, i8«, 25, 27, 31, 43/, 46, 48-50; 38 : 1-30; 39 : 1-23; 43 : 1 — 45 : I*/ 48 : 13- 

19; 49:13-27; Exod. 1:8-12, 14a; 4:1-16; 5:5 — 6:1; 8:1-4, 8-1 5a, 20 — 9:7; 

IO:l-Il; 11:4-8; 12:29-34,37-39; 34:1-28; Numb. 22:33-5^, 5^-7, 11, 17 f., 22- 

36a, 39 ; 24 : 1-25; etc. See also Appendix D. 



52 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

with an account of creation and the fall of man, passes rapidly 
over the antediluvian period, dwells a little while upon the deluge and 
the confusion of tongues, and gives the biographies of the patriarchs 
in some detail. Some of the patriarchal episodes most fully described 
are the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah, the selection of a wife for 
Isaac, Jacob's sojourn with Laban, Judah's treatment of Tamar, the case 
of Joseph and Potiphar's wife, the visits of Joseph's brethren to Egypt 
in search of corn, and Jacob's blessing. The residence and bondage 
in Egypt are related together with the deliverance and exodus. The 
narrative then follows the history on to Sinai and incorporates at this 
point the smaller Book of the Covenant. In the further recital of the 
history especial consideration is given to the Balaam incident, the fall 
of Jericho, the capture of Ai, and Joshua's relief of Gibeon. 

This document is characterized by : (a) a charming narrative style, 
(b) its naive, anthropomorphic conception of God, (e) the use of the 
name Jehovah, (d) the intensely ethical and theological spirit of the 
narrative, (e) the presence within it of duplicate accounts of the same 
event, (/) its lack of chronological indications and, (g) sl deep interest 
in the early history of the human race. 

The general consensus of scholarly opinion is that while J contains 
much material coming from very early stages of Israel's life, it assumed 
its literarv form some time early in the eighth century, or late in the 
ninth century B. C. The narrative thus reflects the ideas of the Judean 
prophets of the age just prior to Amos. For convenience J and E are 
treated in this study as single documents ; it must be remembered, 
however, that a truer conception is that they include within themselves 
various strata of growth and are not the product of two particular 
individuals, but rather of two schools of prophetic writers. 2 

2. The great prophetic narrative of Ephraim,E. The first traces of 
this narrative 3 appear in Gen., chap. 15, in connection with the promise 

2 On the limits, contents, characteristics, date, and origin of J see especially: 
Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 97-109; Driver, 
Introduction, etc., pp. 116-25; Kuenen, The Hexateuch, pp. 138-63, 226-61; DiLL- 
MANN, Die Biicher Numeri, Deuteronomium, und Josua, pp. 622-33; Holzinger, 
Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 72-173. 

3 Gen. 15:1, 2, 5; 20:1-17; 21:8-21, 22-27, 3*. 32, 34; 22:1-13, *9; 25:27, 
29-34; 27:73-14, 16-180, 21-23, 303-310, 35"4i«/ 3* :2, 4-16, 19-24, 26, 28-30, 32- 
42,47,51—32:2; 37:5-11,133, 173, 180, 19, 20, 22-250,280-31, 36; 40:1—41:30, 
32 f., 35a, c, 360,37-40; 42:8-26,29-37; 45 : 5^-8, 15-18, 213-27; 46:2-5; 48:20-22; 
Exod. 1:15 — 2:10; 18 :i2-27; 20:1 — 23:310/ Numb. 20 : 14-18; 21:43-9; 22:40 — 
.23 :26; Deut. 33 : 1-25. See also Appendix D. 



BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 55 

to Abraham of a great posterity. The most important sections of it 
include the account of Abraham and Abimelech's dealings concerning 
Sarah; the stories of the rejection of Hagar and her son; of the dis- 
pute concerning the well at Beersheba; of the offering up of Isaac; of 
the sale of Esau's birthright; of Jacob's success in securing the blessing 
intended for Esau; of Jacob's return from Syria to his own land; the 
narrative of Joseph's dream; of his going down to Egypt; of the course 
of events in Egypt; of the coming of Joseph's brethren and their father 
into Egypt; of the blessing of Joseph's sons; the account of the birth 
of Moses; the advice given by Jethro to Moses; the Decalogue and the 
Book of the Covenant; the refusal of the Edomites to permit the pas- 
sage of Israel through the land of Edom; the making of the bronze 
serpent; the Balaam-oracles; the blessing of Moses. There is in addi- 
tion much material of a more fragmentary character carrying the history 
on through the conquest of Canaan. 

The narrative is, in general, characterized by (a) its evident interest 
in archaeological and antiquarian subjects; (b) its representation of 
Jehovah as revealing his will through dreams, visions, and angels; (e) 
its marked interest in Northern Israel's history rather than that of the 
Southern kingdom; (d) a distinctly didactic or prophetic tone and 
purpose; (e) the use of the word Elohim, instead of Jehovah, as the 
divine name; (/) a somewhat careful and exact chronological arrange- 
ment of material. 

It is generally conceded that E is of northern origin and that it 
assumed literary form at a time subsequent to J, perhaps in the first 
half of the eighth century B. C. It is thus a contemporaneous record 
of prophetic ideals in Northern Israel in the generation before Amos. 4 

3. The J and E of Judges? — These sources of the Book of Judges 

4 On the contents, scope, character, date, and origin of the E narrative see 
especially: Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, pp. 110-20; 
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of. the Old Testament, pp. 116-26; Driver, 
The Book of Genesis, pp. xi-xxi; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, Vol. I, 
pp. 173-228; Kuenen, The Hexateuch, pp. 138-73, 226-61; Dillmann, Die Biicher 
Numeri, Deuteronomium, und Josua, pp. 615-22. 

s The following passages are assigned to J by G. F. Moore : 1: id, 2f., 5-7, 10c, 
11-17,19-230,24-36; 2:10,5^23; 3:2,5,6,16-270,28; 6:11-19,21-24,34; 7:1; 
7-9, I2-I6, 20-22 ; 8 :4-2I, 24-27 ; 9:26-41 ; 13:2-25; 14 : 1-20 ; 15: 1-19; 16:1-310, 
17:1,5,7-12; 18:1-14,17-30; 19:1-6; 9 f., 12, 14-23,25-30; 20:1,3-8, l8f., 29, 
36-41,44,47; 21:1,15-23; and the following to E : 4:6-22; 6:33,36-40; 9 = 1-25, 
42-55; 11:1,3-11,30-40; 12:1-6; 17:2-4, 7, II; 18:2-4, 8f., 15, 31; 19:71-, 10, 
12 f., 15. 



54 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

originated during the first or second century of this period. Whether 
or not they formed a part of the J and E of the Hexateuch cannot be 
definitely determined, but in any case they come from the same school 
of prophetic narrators, and show the light in which these interpreters 
of history looked upon events and movements of comparatively recent 
times. 6 

4. The earlier Samuel Narrative (see § 45, 1), dealing with the 
history of the times of Saul and David, and having value for this period 
because the writer's purpose and point of view appear so plainly in his 
selection and use of materials and in the general attitude assumed 
toward these great leaders of former times. 

5. The later Samuel Narrative (see §45, 2), covering the same 
period as the earlier narrative, but reflecting a more highly developed 
stage of thought and feeling and characterized by a distinctly prophetic 
spirit. 

6. The various narratives and documents in Kings relating to David 
and Solomon, 1 Kings, chaps. 1-11. Chaps. 1 and 2, dealing with 
the last acts of David, really belong to the books of Samuel and express 
the same ideas as the sources of Samuel. Chaps. 3-1 1 include 
several sources (§45, 5), among the earliest of which are: (a) an early 
life of Solomon, the purpose of which seems to have been to emphasize 
the great wisdom and power of Solomon, and {b) still older annalistic 
records of Solomon's building operations, and various other matters. 
These are of interest and value as showing the thought of the times 
concerning the life and work of Solomon. The pieces, thus included, 
represent in truest fashion not only (1) the general purpose and spirit 
of 933-721 B. C, or some special sub-period in these two centuries; 
but also (2) a definite and separate development of prophetic growth 
and prophetic literary expression, standing between the earlier work 
of Elijah and Elisha, and the later activity of Amos and Hosea. 

§59. Constructive Study. — In the case of each of the documents 
treated in §58 : 

1. Ascertain the various views concerning the time of its origin, 

6 On the sources of Judges see the commentaries of G. F. Moore, Budde and 
Nowack, and also Moore, art. "Judges," Encyclopedia Biblica; Konig, art. "Judges," 
Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Moore, Judges (Polychrome Bible) ; Stade 
"Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des vordeuteronomischen Richterbuches," Zeitschrift fur 
die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I. pp. 339-43; Deliver, Introduction to the 
Literature of the Old Testament (1897), pp. 160-72; Frankenberg, Die Composition 
des deuteronomischen Richterbuches (1895) ; Marquart, Fundamente der israelilischen 
und judischen Geschichte (1896). 



BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 55 

together with the grounds upon which its assignment to this period 
rests. 

2. Separate carefully any portions which may fairly be regarded as 
having had their origin later than 721 B. C. and indicate the reasons 
for this separation. 

3. Try to determine the particular portion of this period in which 
the piece originated, and study the historical environment out of which 
it came. 

4. Endeavor by continuous reading of each document by itself to 
secure a clear conception of the document as a whole. 

§60. The Covenant Code. — (Exod. 20:23 — 23:33). This is a series of 
laws arranged in groups of five and representing the ideas and usages 
that had come into existence and received general acceptance between 
the days of Moses and some time in the eighth or ninth centuries B. C. 
at the latest. This code is characterized by (a) the comparatively 
primitive character of many of its requirements; {b) the agricultural 
background reflected in its laws ; (c) the predominance of ethical and 
secular elements in the legislation, almost to the exclusion of ritualistic 
details ; (d) its harmony with the teachings of the earlier prophets. 

On the Covenant Code see especially : Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexa- 
teuch, pp. 211-32; Naumann, "Der Dekalog und das sinaitische Bundesbuch im 
inneren Zusammenhange dargestellt," Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchl. 
Leben, Vol. IX (1888), pp. 551-71; Baentsch, Das Bundesbuch (1892); Roth- 
STEIN, Das Bundesbuch und die religionsgeschichtliche Entivicklung Israels (1888) ; 
Budde, " Bemerkungen zum Bundesbuch," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissen- 
schaft,Vo\. XI, pp. 99-1 1 4 ; Kraetzschmar, Die Bundesvorstellung im Alten Testa?nent 
(1896), pp. 70-99; Kuenen, The Hexateuch, pp. 50 f., 167, 245; W. Staerk, Das 
Deuteronomium (1894), pp. 32-57; L. B. Paton, "The Original Form of the Book of 
the Covenant," fournal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XII (1893), pp. 79-93; Steuer- 
nagel, "Der jehovistische Bericht iiber d. Bundesschluss am Sinai," Theologische 
Studien und Kritiken (1899), PP- 3*9 ff-J G. F. Moore, art. "Exodus," §4, Encyclo- 
pedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1891), pp. 
73-75 ; W. R. Harper, The Priestly Element in the Old Testament (1905), §§20, 169 ; 
Idem, Amos and Hosea, pp. lxiv-ix ; and the commentaries of Baentsch and 
Holzinger on Exodus, in loc. 

§61. Constructive Study. — Take up the Covenant Code and consider 
in general: (1) its place in the history of Hebrew legislation; (2) the 
stage of civilization reflected in its social and religious ideas; (3) its 
relation on the one hand to the work of the priests, on the other to 
that of the prophets. 

§62. B. Narrative Literature, produced in this period, 
which describes selected features of the period — in other 



$6 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

i Kings ia : 1-20, words, contemporaneous history. This is found chiefly 
25,28,29; 14: . . 

25-28,30. in 1 Kings, chap. 12 — 2 Kings, chap. 17. 7 

1. Old material in 1 Kings 12 :i — 14:18, relating to 
the disruption and the subsequent history of the North- 
ern kingdom, coming from the pen of a Northern writer. 
Note that he places all the blame for the disruption 
upon Rehoboam, and holds the conviction that the right 
to choose their king is a prerogative of the people. 

1 Kings, chaps. 2. Northern or Ephraimite stories concerning Elijah 

17-19 and 21. . 

and his work, setting the prophet forth as the representa- 
tive of Jehovah in successful opposition to the policy of 
a wicked king and the sensuous tendencies of a corrupt 
people. The narratives are characterized by freshness 
and vigor and directness of aim. The stories are marked 
by unity of style and purpose and have very few later 
accretions. They come from a comparatively early time 
as appears, e.g., (a) from the fact that they do not oppose 
the calf- worship of Jeroboam II. as did Hosea; (b) they 
know nothing of the Deuteronomic prohibition of local 
sanctuaries; (c) the statement in 1 Kings 19:3 that 
"Beersheba belongeth to Judah." On the other hand 
the stories are not contemporaneous with the events they 
describe and do not purport to be the records of eyewit- 
nesses. They may with reasonable certainty be assigned 
to the period about 800 B. C. 

1 Kings, chaps. 3. Northern or Ephraimite stories of the Northern 
9°'i— io 2 :27! ngS ' kingdom, characterized by a more favorable estimate of 

Ahab than that prevalent in the stories concerning Elijah, 
and concerned with the revolution under Jehu, not as 
though coming from an active participant and sym- 
pathizer with the efforts of the reforming party, but rather 
from an outsider without any special prophetic tendencies. 
Apart from a few later accretions these stories may be 
assigned to the same general period as the foregoing. 

2 Kings 2: 1—8: 4. Northern stories of E lis ha and his work. — In these 

stories Elisha is the center of interest. They are of 

7 For the analysis of the Books of Kings see the works cited in § 45, note 2, and 
also Stade, Akademische Reden und Abhandlungen (1899), pp. 143-226; Stade 
and Schwally, The Books of Kings (Polychrome Bible, 1904); Wellhausen, 
Die Composition des Hexatenchs und der historischen Biicher (1889). 



BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 57 

varied character and value, and lacking in unity of 
thought. They seem to have been gathered from various 
sources, and incorporated without being brought into 
perfect harmony with each other. Some of them are 
evidently historical sources of high value, while others 
are highly idealistic and poetic pictures of Elisha as 
interpreted by later times. Altogether they present the 
various aspects of Elisha's many-sided activity. The 
stories probably come from different times and places, 
but all may be supposed to have originated in Northern 
Israel some time about the middle of the eighth century 
B. C. 

5. Southern stories concerning Judah. — These Judean 2 Kings, chaps, 
narratives are based upon older sources of information, 
but were edited by a later hand. The different interests 
and conceptions of the older writers not infrequently 
appear in the narratives as they now stand. Their 
Judean origin accounts for the large share of attention 
given to the temple and its interests. 

§63. Constructive Study. — In the case of each of the sources cited 
in § 62, 

1. Ascertain the various views concerning the time of its origin, 
together with the grounds upon which its assignment to this period 
rests. 

2. Separate carefully those portions of the piece which may fairly 
be regarded as having had their origin later than 721 B. C, and 
indicate the reasons for this separation. 

3. Try to determine in what portion of this period the piece 
originated, and study the historical environment out of which it came. 

§ 64. C. Sermonic Literature, coming from this period, 
which (1) describes the times, (2) is intended to meet the 
needs of the people, (3) grows out of the circumstances, 
historical and moral, of the particular period under con- 
sideration. 

1. An oracle concerning Moab. — This probably comes isa. 15 : 1— 16 : ia 
from a prophet of Judah, older than Isaiah, living when 
Jeroboam II. (2 Kings 14:25) subdued Moab, about 
775 B. C. 8 The writer evidently sympathizes with the 

8 This has been the more commonly accepted opinion; so, e. g., Hitzig (who 
ascribed the prophecy to Jonah, and was followed by Knobel, Maurer, Baur, 



58 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Moabites (15 15, 16: 10, 11). Isaiah himself, perhaps in 
734 B. C, in connection with the incursion of Tiglath- 
pileser, or in 712 B. C, when Moab was intriguing with 
Egypt and Philistia, may have (a) reaffirmed its fulfil- 
ment (16:13, 14), and at the same time (b) have inserted 
16 : 4b, 5. The discourse is somewhat fragmentary and 
obscure. Its most striking characteristic is the frequent 
use of paronomasia (sixteen cases). 
15:1-9- A great calamity is to befall Moab; her people will 

be stricken with fear, and will flee in terror toward 
16:1-6. Edom. If now Moab would submit to the house of 

16:7-12. David in Jerusalem, protection would be secured. But 

Moab is too proud to do this ; and therefore destruction 
l6:i 3, 14. is certain. "The prediction of long ago," says the later 

prophet, "will soon be fulfilled; in fact, within three 
years." 
Amos 7: 1-9. 2. The visions of Amos, in which he sees the destruc- 

tion, at first delayed, but finally executed, probably 
constituted his call to the work of the prophet. Com- 
pare the similar experiences of Hosea (chaps. 1-3), 
Isaiah (chap. 6), Jeremiah (chap. 1), Ezekiel (chap. 1). 
The prophet's definite statement, in poetical form, of the 
7:9; 7:14. destruction of Jeroboam's house, and his denial that he 

is a member of a prophetic society, furnish the key to an 
7:10-13,14-17. understanding of the entire book. After the two pieces, 
in which is related his encounter with Amaziah, there 
follow two other visions, the first of which is entitled the 
8:1, ib. vision of the basket of ripe fruit, with an explanatory dis- 

8:4-14. course emphasizing the approaching catastrophe; the 

9:1. second, the vision of the broken altar, with a most pas- 

9:2-8*$. sionate description of the ruin which is at hand. 9 

Thenius, et al), DeWette, Ewald, Umbreit, Reuss, Kuenen, Wellhausen 
{Encyclopedia Britannica 9 , Vol. XVI, p. 535); W. R. Smith (Prophets of Israel, pp. 
91 f.,392), Dillmann, G. A. Smith, Driver [Introduction, etc., pp. 215 f.), Skinner. 
Others have held that this was a prophecy revealed to Isaiah early in his career, and 
that at the time of his final utterance of it he received the further revelation of its ful- 
filment within three years (so, e. g., Delitzsch, Orelli). Still others make it post- 
exilic; so,<f. g., SCHWALLY (Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. VIII, 
pp. 207 ff.); Duhm, Cheyne (Introduction, etc.), Marti. 

9 Chap. 9: 8^-1 5 must be assigned to a prophet living at a much later day than Amos. 



BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 59 

3. The fate of the nations, with whom Israel has been 1:3-5, 6-8, 13-15. 
brought into relationship, viz., Syria, Philistia, Amnion, 2:1-3 
Moab, 10 is destruction, because they have transgressed 

the universal laws of morality. Will not the same judg- 
ment come upon Israel, who has been guilty of the most a: 6-8. 
cruel injustice and oppression, notwithstanding Yahweh's 2:9-12. 
many efforts to build and strengthen her? A calamity is 2:13-16. 
coming which none will escape. The climax in the 
enumeration of countries is found in Israel. The same 
laws which apply to other nations must apply also to 
Israel. 

4. Amos' s great message, contained in his visions (chaps. 
7, 8, 9), and serving as the subject of his introductory 
sermons, (1, 2), is simply repeated again and again in his 
remaining sermons. These are (1) As everyone fears 3:1-8. 
when the lion roars, so everyone ought to understand 

that destruction is at hand when Yahweh has announced 
the fact; (2) Samaria's doom has been decreed, viz., an 3:9—4:3- 
adversary ; nothing left ; the altars destroyed ; the women 
carried into captivity; (3) Effort of every kind was put 4:4-13. 
forth to bring Israel to her senses, but she would not 
understand and return; (4) The virgin Israel will fall 5:1-6,8,9. 
never again to rise up, because she would not seek 
Yahweh;" (5) Israel, because of her transgressions, will 5:7,10-17. 
come to grief; (6) Woe upon those who pray for Yahweh's 5:18—6:14. 
day; woe upon Samaria for her recklessness and indif- 
ference; Yahweh swears by himself that he will crush 
Israel, by sending against her a hostile nation. 

On the Book of Amos see the commentaries of W. R. Harper 
{International Critical Commentary ; 1905) ; G. A. Smith {Ex- 
positor's Bible); Driver {Cambridge Bible); Mitchell, Orelli, 
Wellhausen, Nowack {Kleine Propheten); Marti {Dodeka- 
propheton) ; and also W. R. Harper, The Structure of the Text of 
the Book of Amos (1904); Cheyne, art. "Amos," Encyclopcedia 
Biblica; G. Rothstein, "Amos und seine Stellung innerhalb des 
israelitischen Prophetismus," Theologische Studien und Kritiken* 
April, 1905; Valeton, Amos und Hosea ; Davidson, Expositor, 

10 The statements concerning Tyre (1:9,10), Edom (1:11, 12), Judah(2:4, 5) come 
probably from a later day. 

"Vss. 8, 9 are from a later prophet. 



60 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

March and September, 1887; Taylor, art. "Amos," Hastings's 
Dictionary of the Bible; Baumann, Der Aufbau der Amosreden; 
Lohr, Untersuchungen zum Buck Amos ; Meinhold, Studien zur 
israelitischen Religionsgeschichte, Band I: Der heilige Rest, pp. 33-63 ; 
Seesemann, Israel und Juda bei Amos tind Hosea; RiEDEL, Alt- 
testamentliche Untersuchungen, Vol. I, pp. 19-36; Driver, art. 
"Amos," Smith, Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed.) ; Idem, Introduc- 
tion, etc., pp. 313-18. 

1:2-9. 5- Hosed 's domestic experience furnishes both the intro- 

duction to the book and the prophet's call to be a 
prophet. He marries a wife, Gomer, who is strongly 
inclined to harlotry at the time of marriage ; this shows 
itself, later, in the birth of children in sin. She is put 
away. After awhile she is purchased as a slave and put 

3:1-5. in a place of retention "many days." Just so Israel has 

2:4-7,10-14,19. become a harlot, going after other gods, and she must 
be punished, 12 that is, deprived of all opportunity for 
worship and for self government for "many days." 

6. Hosea 's sermons, when properly restored, are found 
to be models of poetic and logical skill. In one after 
another he deals with the sins of his times, and endeavors, 
although ineffectually, to lead the people to a correct 

4:1-19. knowledge of Jehovah: (1) Israel is led on in wickedness 

by the priests, who encourage the people in idolatry and 
adultery. Let Judah beware of Israel doomed to death. 

5:1-14. (2) Israel is led astray by priests ignorant of Jehovah and 

therefore faithless to him. Twofold punishment will 
come : from without, an invading army; from within, 

5:15—7:7. anarchy and corruption. (3) Israel's blind and fitful 

repentance is not sufficient to remove the guilt which 
will one day be manifest to all ; the situation is one of 
iniquity, as is plainly seen in the assassinations that are 
taking place, the confusion and desperation on every 

7:8—8:3. side. (4) Israel, in seeking aid from foreign nations, has 

abandoned Jehovah, and will in turn be abandoned to 

8:4-14. destruction by him. (5) Israel's self-appointed kings 

and her stubborn idolatry are displeasing to Jehovah and 

9:1-9. will bring destruction. (6) She shall go into exile and 

be deprived of all her accustomed social and religious 

"Chap. 2:8, 9, 16-18, 20-25, 1-3 are four separate and later voices describing 
Israel's return to Jehovah and his acceptance of her. 



BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 6 1 

privileges. (7) Israel is corrupt; the life of old as well 9:10-17. 
as young is licentious. (8) Israel is wicked in propor- 10:1-8. 
tion to her prosperity; but an end is coming of all that 
she has falsely trusted. (9) Israel's history is one of sin 10:9-15. 
and guilt ; the fruit of such seed is a sad harvest ; viz., 
desolation, destruction, and death, even that of the king. 
(10) But yet Israel is a child, and Jehovah his father, u:x-u. 
with all a father's love in spite of ingratitude and deser- 
tion. (11) The falsity and faithlessness of Israel from 12:1-15. 
the very beginning must bring retribution and ruin. 
(12) Israel shall be utterly destroyed and condemned to 13:1-16. 
Sheol. (13) An exhortation to repentance and words of 14:1-8. 
hope. 

On the Book of Hosea see: the commentaries by W. R. Harper 
{International Critical Commentary, 1905); G. A. Smith {Exposi- 
tor's Bible)-, Cheyne {Cambridge Bible)-, Ewald, Hitzig, Orelli, 
Wunsche, Simson, Wellhausen {Kleine Propheten); Nowack 
{Kleine Propheten) ; Marti {Dodekapropheton); Valeton {Amos und 
Hosea) ; and also W. R. Harper, The Structure of the Text of 
the Book of Hosea (1905); Oettli, Amos und Hosea (1901) ; Mein- 
HOLD, Studien zur israelitischen Religionsgeschichte, Band I : Der 
heilige Rest, pp. 64-88 ; Seesemann, Israel und fuda bei Amos 
und Hosea nebst einem Excurs iiber Hos. 1-3; Riedel, Alt- 
testamentliche Untersuchungen, Vol. I, pp. 1-18; Davidson, art. 
"Hosea," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; W. R. Smith and 
Marti, art. "Hosea," Encyclopcedia Biblica ; Driver, Introduction, 
etc., pp. 301-7. 

7. The call of Isaiah occurred about 740 B. C; the isa., chap. 6. 
story of this call was not made public before 730 B. C; 

its form and position show that it was intended to serve 
as an explanation and justification of the severe and ter- 
rible prophecies which precede it (viz., chaps. 2-5). The 
wording of the chapter shows that the prophet had been 
preaching several years before the publication of this call. 
It includes two parts: (1) A vision of the glory of the 6:1-7. 
Holy One of Israel ; from this we learn Isaiah's concep- 
tion of God; (2) The commission of the prophet, viz., to 6:8-^13. 
be a preacher to his people, but without success, until the 
sin-stricken nation shall be purged by the devastation of 
an invader; the outcome of this period of purification 
will be a "holy seed," something indestructible. 

8. The ideal and the real, as they presented them- isa. 2:2-4. 



62 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

selves to Isaiah, about the year 735 B. C, when he was 
beginning his work as preacher, are described most 
vividly in chaps. 2-4: (1) Israel's religion, in the future, 
will have the place of pre-eminence among the world's 

2:5-8. nations and will bring universal peace;' 3 but (2) this 

cannot be realized in the present condition of luxury, 

2:9-17. infidelity, and idolatry; there must first come a judgment 

2 : 18-21. 

2:22—3:15. upon Palestine which will fall upon everything in which 

the nation has wrongly placed its dependence, whether 

(a) inanimate objects, which shall be brought low, or 

(b) idols, which shall be destroyed, or (V) society, of which 
3:16—4:1. the entire collapse may be expected, or (d) women, whose 

luxurious tastes have brought ruin upon themselves and 
their husbands — all must be purged; but, after this 
punishment has been meted out, (3) the ideal condition 
will be realized, the remnant will once more prosper; 
those who constitute the citizenship of Zion will be pure 
and holy — all this when the present filth of Zion has 
been purged. 14 

isa.,chap. 5. 9. The parable of the vineyard and its fruit is one of 

Isaiah's most characteristic sermons and was preached 
about 735 B. C: (1) The prophet sings a song — he calls 
it a song of love, in which he describes a vineyard 
(Israel), carefully prepared and planted with the choicest 

5:1-7. vines by its owner (Jehovah). This vineyard, expected 

to produce grapes, yields only wild ones, nothing more 
than would have grown without care and without pro- 
tection. What will follow ? Utter destruction of the 
vineyard by its owner. But (2) of what kind of sinners 

5:8-10,11-17,18, is Israel made up? (a) Avaricious monopolists; (b) 

' 23 ' dissolute debauchees ; (c) presumptuous fools ; (d) per- 

verters of truth; (e) self-conceited skeptics; (/) corrupt 

5:24. officials. (3) These will all be destroyed in Jehovah's 

indignation. 

10. The collapse of Israel is described in a poetic 
utterance found in 9 : 8 — 10 : 4 with 5 : 25-29 as a conclu- 

13 This passage, found likewise in Mic. 4:1 ff., was probably placed here by a 
later prophet, to soften the very severe statements that follow. 

14 In this passage 2:5, 20, 22; 3 : 10 f., 18-23, 25 f.; 4:5 f. are probably from a 
later prophet. 



BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 63 

sion. The feature of the poem is its refrain which is 
repeated at the close of each stanza: (1) Foreign foes 9:8-12. 
will inflict irreparable injury; but without avail. (2) 9:13-17. 
Merciless pestilence will bring indescribable suffering. 
(3) Internal strife will introduce ruin and disaster. (4) 9:18-21. 
Death or captivity is awaiting one and all of them. But 10:1-4. 
none of these afflictions has brought Israel to her senses ; 
she continues as before, and Jehovah's hand is still out- 
stretched. Therefore, now, (5) they shall be given over 5:26-30. 
to the worst of enemies ; an army marching swiftly, with 
perfect outfit, ready for action, invincible, shall come and 
take them away. 15 

11. The Syro-Ephraimitish war (735-734 B. C.) fur- 
nished the occasion for some of Isaiah's most interesting 
work: (1) Israel and Syria propose to force Judah into a 7:1. 
triple alliance against the aggression of Assyria. (2) 7:2. 
Judah and Jerusalem are in great distress. (3) Ahaz, 7:3-9. 
who is inclined to join hands with Assyria, is told by 
Isaiah that he need not fear; the doom of Israel and 
Syria is at hand ; they cannot injure Judah. (4) Because 7:10-17. 
Ahaz is skeptical, a sign is given — the child [God-is- 
with-us), and before this child is old enough to distin- 
guish good from evil, Israel and Syria will be forsaken, 
and Judah, likewise, will be called to suffer. (5) A great 7:18-25. 
devastation will come upon Judah, because of the conflict 
between Assyria and Egypt, and the land will become a 
ruin. (6) Yes, let the people know that Israel and Syria 8:1-8. 
will be laid waste before Mahar-shalal-hash-baz, the 
prophet's son born a little later, is two years old ; and 
this calamity to the nation in the north will include also 
Judah in the south. (7) In these days of disaster let not 8:11-15. 
the lack of faith of the people find a place in the heart of 
the prophet or his disciples ; Jehovah is the only source 
of help. (8) In these days of darkness, men must not 8:16-22. 
resort to the dead, but to the "direction and the admoni- 
tion." (9) But a day of brightness is coming in which 9:2-7. 
the most northern tribes (just carried into captivity), will 
have first share. Instead of darkness there will be 
light; instead of grief, joy; for the tribes, taken into 

^The position of 10 : 1-4 is not satisfactory logically. See Mitchell, p. 222. 



64 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

captivity, will throw off the yoke, for Assyria's armies 
will have been destroyed. The instrument of deliver- 
ance will be the child, the Prince of Peace, through whom 
justice and peace will endure forever. 

12. The fall of Damascus and that of Samaria are 
17:1-11. treated likewise in two short pieces: (1) The oracle on 

Damascus : (a) Damascus and Ephraim will soon perish ; 
but (b) a remnant will escape that will be faithful to 
Jehovah ; (c) Ephraim falls because she has forsaken 
28:1-6. Jehovah and adopted foreign cults. (2) Samaria in all her 

haughtiness is doomed to destruction at Jehovah's hand. 

On the book of Isaiah see especially : the commentaries of 
Delitzsch, Ewald, G. A. Smith {Expositor's Bible); Skinner 
{Cambridge Bible) ; Cheyne, Orelli, Duhm, Marti, Dillmann, 
Kittel, Mitchell, and also Cheyne, Introduction to the Prophecies 
of Isaiah; Driver, Isaiah, His Life and Times ("Men of the Bible 
Series"); G. A. Smith, art. "Isaiah," Hastings's Dictionary of the 
Bible; Cheyne, art. "Isaiah," Encyclopcedia Biblica; C. H. H. 
Wright, art. "Isaiah," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed). 

13. Micah, a co-worker of Isaiah, brought up in a 
country home (1:1, 14), and speaking from the point 
of view of the masses, rather than that of the upper 
classes, begins his work before 721 B. C. (1 : 6). Unlike 
Isaiah he has little or no interest in the political situa- 
tion. 16 The essence of his utterance is rebuke and 

1:1-7; denunciation: (1) Jehovah is coming with judgment 

against Samaria and Jerusalem because of the wickedness 

1:8-15. which is seen in the cities, especially Samaria; but the 

judgment will come also upon Jerusalem and upon the 
country in which the prophet's own home lies. (2) The 

2:1-5. sin consists in the outrageous conduct of those in power, 

who rob their poorer neighbors that they may become 
richer. Just so they in turn will be robbed by foreign 
invaders. Notwithstanding their remonstrance, they shall 

2:6-10. be carried away, because they plunder my people. (3) 

2: ix. The kind of a prophet Israel desires is one who speaks 

false things. (4) The ruling classes are devouring sav- 
ages ; the softly speaking prophets shall be confounded, 

3:1-4, 5-8, 9-12. the prophet's own work shall stand ; the national sins are 
grievous; Zion shall be plowed as a field. 

l6 Only chaps. 1 ; 2 : 1-11 and 3 : 1-12 may be assigned to Micah. 



BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 65 

On the Book of Micah see especially the commentaries by 
Cheyne {Cambridge Bible)', G. A. Smith {Expositor's Bible) ; 
Nowack {Kleine Propheten)-, Wellhausen {Kleine Propheten)-, 
Marti {Dodekapropheton) ; Elhorst, Ewald, Hitzig, Orelli, and 
also Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 
pp. 325-34; Ryssel, Untersuchungen iiber die Textgestalt und die 
Echtheit des Buches Micha (1887) ; W. R. Smith and T. K. Cheyne, 
art. "Micah," Encyclopedia Biblica; Stade, "Bemerkungen iiber 
das Buch Micha," Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 
Vol. I, pp. 161-71 ; III, 1-1G; IV, 291-97; Nowack, art. "Micah," 
Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Taylor, "The Message of 
Micah," Biblical World, Vol. XXV (1905), pp. 201-14. 

§65. Constructive Study, — In the case of each piece or group of 
pieces cited in §64, 1-13, consider (1) the characteristics of style which 
it presents; (2) its strophic structure and poetical form; (3) any 
external features or historical allusions which show its relationship to 
the times to which it is assigned. 

§66. Additions and Insertions have been made in the 
prophetic writings by writers of a date later than that of 
the original author. This fact is now generally acknowl- 
edged, 17 although there is not always entire agreement as 
to the particular passages which may be called late. 
These insertions and additions are of several kinds : 

1. Sometimes a single verse or phrase is introduced 
by way of explanation, or for the purpose of adding a 
new fact of history bearing upon the preceding passage. 
This may be the work (a) of someone who has placed on 

the margin of the MS. a phrase which later finds its way isa. 2:20; 3:1$; 

into the text itself; the reader or writer, by this addition? king o/"as- 

interprets, as it were, the prophecy or expands it, or 20; 8:5' 

brings it up to date; or (3) of the editor of the collection isa. 2:5; 7:86; 
who makes such an insertion to enable him to fit together 
two or more passages not closely connected. 

2. Sometimes the addition or insertion consists of a 
complete or partially complete discourse, introduced by isa. 5:15, 16. 
an editor because it is (a) similar to the original passage, isa. 2:2-4. 
or (3) in contrast with it, or (c) needed in view of later 
information or doctrinal idea, to make it more complete isa. 3:101., 18-23, 
from the editor's point of view, or (d) serves as an intro- 9:1 2 (dc. first 

Drir3SC) 2 

duction. The principal additions to Isaiah's discourses isa.i:x;'a:x. 
(delivered before 721 B. C.) are given above. The fol- 

*? Cf. Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, p. no, 
lines 1-8. 



66 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

lowing are the more important passages recognized as 
late in Amos, Hosea, and Micah, chaps. 1-3 : 

a) Amos 1:1; 1:2; 1 : 9 f. ; 1 : 1 1 f. ; 2 : 4 f. ; 4: >jb, 8a; 
4:13; 5 : 8 f . ; 6:2; 6:9-110; 8:6; 9 : 6 f . ; 9:8^-15. 

b) Hosea 1:1; 1:7; 2: 1-3 ; 2:6; 2:8 f . ; 2:12; 2: 16- 
18; 2:20-25; 3:5; 6:11; 8:1b, 10, 14; 9:9; 10:3 f., ub, 
14b; 11:8b, ga, 10b, 11; 12:1b, 4^-7, 13, 14; 14:6, 7, 9. 

c) Micah 2:11 f . 

§67. Constructive Study. — Take up some of the passages (see above) 
supposed to be late, and (1) ascertain the grounds on which the assign- 
ment to a later date is alleged to rest; (2) determine the purpose 
sought to be gained by the later writer, or editor, in making the 
addition. 

§ 68. Later Literary Sources furnishing information 
concerning this period, and aiding toward a better under- 
standing of (1) the institutions, (2) the movements, (3) 
the utterances of the principal characters are to be found 
as follows : 

1 Kings 12: 20-24; 1. Later traditions in Kings, e. jr., the story of Reho- 

12:33 — 13 : 34; ° ** J 

14:1-18; 2 Kings boam's purpose to recover Northern Israel by force of 

1 : 9-16 ; 14 : 23- r r J 

29; 15:1-4, 5, arms; the story of the prophet's denunciation of the 
altar at Bethel ; the prophecy of Ahijah concerning 
Jeroboam's son Abijah; the sending of the companies 
of troops to seize Elijah; the account of the reigns of 
Jeroboam II. of Israel and Azariah of Judah; the expla- 
nation of the fall of Samaria. 

2 chron. 14:9-15; 2. Later traditions in Chronicles, consisting in large 
20:1-30; 26:16- ' ° ° 
20. part of (a) earlier materials worked over by the Chron- 
icler (e. g., the accounts of Asa's victory over the Cushites, 
Jehoshaphat's victory over Moab and Ammon, and the 
infliction of leprosy upon Uzziah), and to a much less 
extent of the original contribution of the Chronicler him- 
self, consisting chiefly of editorial modifications, and the 
general handling of the material in such a way as to 
make it represent the Chronicler's own point of view. 18 

§ 69. Constructive Study. — It is important to make use of these later 
traditions, and to this end it is suggested that, in the case of the sources 
indicated in §68, the student — 

18 For discussions of the sources of Chronicles see the literature cited in §45, 
note 3. 



BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 6? 

i. Secure from some authority the actual Scripture material which 
scholars are accustomed to regard as included in each. 

2. Consider the various points which are thought to be character- 
istic of them. 

3. Study closely the times in which they are claimed to have had 
their origin, and the important ideas of those times. 

4. Note the "traditions" given concerning the period which forms 
the basis of this study, and distinguish the sympathies and antipathies 
which have been transferred from the later period. 

5. Sum up briefly the essential events and ideas which, after due 
allowance has been made for such transference, may fairly be regarded 
as belonging to the period under consideration. 

§ 70. The Monumental Sources illustrating the period 933-721 B. C. 
are very abundant. They may be grouped as follows : 

1. Egyptian. — A bas-relief on the southern wall of the temple of 

Amen at Karnak representing Shishak as subduing his enemies, and 

giving the names of several cities in Israel and Judah conquered by 

him upon his raid in the days of Rehoboam (1 Kings 14:25-28). 

On this inscription and the bearings of Egypt on Israelitish affairs see : Driver, 
in Hogarth's Authority and Archceology, pp. 87 f.; Price, The Monuments and the 
Old Testament, pp. 140-42 ; Paton, Early History of Syria and Palestine, pp. 192 f. 

2. Assyrian. — (a) The Monolith Inscription of Shalmaneser II. 
containing his account of the battle of Karkar (854 B. C), and mention- 
ing Ahab of Israel as one of the allied kings arrayed against him and 
defeated, {b) The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II. representing 
"Jehu son of Omri" as prostrating himself before Shalmaneser and 
bringing him tribute, (c) The tribute of Jehu is mentioned also by 
Shalmaneser II. in an inscription on a paving-stone from Calah. (d) 
Adad-nirari III. (812-783 B. C.) includes "the land of Omri" in the 
list of countries subjugated in one of his campaigns, (e) A comparison 
of the statement of the Babylonian chronicle concerning this period, 
with a corresponding statement of a list of the Babylonian dynasties 
establishes the identity of the biblical Pul (2 Kings 15:19) with Tiglath- 
pileser III. (/) Tiglath-pileser III. mentions Menahem as paying 
tribute in 738 B. C, and names " Azriyahu of Ya'udi" as having joined 
forces with Hamath against him and having been repulsed. Until 
within recent years Azriyahu was supposed to be Azariah or Uzziah, 
king of Judah, but it seems more probable that a king of a region in 
Northern Syria is here alluded to. Tiglath-pileser further describes 
the expedition against Damascus and Northern Israel made in response 



68 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

to the request of Ahaz of Judah and states that he slew Pekah and 
appointed Hoshea as king of Israel (2 Kings 16:7 ff-)- Tiglath-pileser 
also includes Ahaz of Judah among his tributaries in the year 728 B. C. 
(g) Sargon, the successor of Shalmaneser IV. who began the siege of 
Samaria, tells of his capture of the city and the deportation of its 
inhabitants, and in three different passages of his inscriptions speaks 
of having settled various peoples in Samaria (2 Kings, chap. 17). 

For the Assyrian inscriptions and the significance of Assyria in this period see 
especially: R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, pp. 33-64; Driver, 
in Hogarth's Authority and Archeology, pp. 92-102; Price, The Monuments and 
the Old Testa?nent, pp. 148-75; Ball, Light from the East, pp. 158-80; WlNCKLER 
UND Zimmern, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament (3d ed. 1902), pp. 41-66, 
171-75, 240-70 ; G. S. GOODSPEED, A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians (1902), 
pp. 185-247; McCurdy, History, Prophecy , and the Monuments, Vol. I (1895), pp. 
261-401 ; Paton, Early History of Syria and Palestine (1901), pp. 199-245 ; Rogers, 
A History of Babylonia and Assyria, Vol. II (1900), pp. 72-157; A. Jeremias, Das 
Alte Testament im Lichte des alten Orients (1904), pp. 289-303; T. G. Pinches, 
The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records of Assyria and Baby- 
lonia (2d ed. 1903), pp. 327-64. 

3. Moabite. — The inscription of Mesha, King of Moab, discovered 
at Dibon in 1868, and containing an account in Mesha's own words of 
the revolt of Moab from Israel mentioned in 2 Kings 3:4, 5. 

On the inscription of Mesha see especially : Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text of 
the Books of Samuel, pp. lxxxv-xciv ; Driver, art. "Mesha," Encyclopaedia Biblica; 
Bennett, art. " Moab," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Ball, Light from the 
East, p. 240; Price, The Monuments and the Old Testament, pp. 142-47; Stade, 
Geschichte des Volkes Lsrael, Vol. I, pp. 532-36 ; Lidzbarski, Handbuch der nord- 
semitischen Epigraphik, pp. 415 f. ; G. A. Cooke, A Text- Book of North Semitic Ln- 
scriptions (1903), pp. 1-14; Konig, Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen 
Gesellschaft, Vol. 59 (1905), PP- 233-51. 

4. Aramaic. — The inscriptions from Zinjirli dating from the eighth 

century B. C. furnish many illustrations of the religious and political 

life of Northern Syria at this time, and show the dominance of Assyria 

in the whole of Western Asia. 

On the Zinjirli inscriptions see : G. A. Cooke, A Text- Book of North Semitic 
Lnscriptions, pp. 159-85; Lidzbarski, Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik, 
pp. 440-44 ; Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, ausgefiihrt und herausgegeben im Auftrage 
des Orient-Comites zu Berlin (1893), Parts I, III, pp. 44-54, IV, pp. 55-84; D. H. 
Muller, " Die altsemitischen Inschriften von Sendschirli," Wiener Zeitschrift fur 
die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Vol. VII (1893), pp. 33-70, 1 13-140. 

§71. Constructive Study. — Prepare a brief statement upon the essen- 
tial facts in the life and history of Egypt, Assyria, Moab, and Syria 
during this period, with special reference to their bearing upon the 
life and thought of Israel. 



BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 69 

§ 72. Allusions to the Institutions found in the writings of the period 
throw light upon the non-prophetic and likewise the prophetic religious 
thought of the times. The chief material of this kind is as follows : 

1. The Priest: Exod. 20:6; 1 Kings 18:19-40; Hos. 4:6-9; 5:1; 
6:9; Amos 7:10-17; Mic. 3:11; Isa. 28:7; Deut. 33:8-11. 

2. The Place of Worship: Exod. 20:24 ff . ; 1 Kings 2:28-30; 3:4; 
6:1-38; 18:30-38; Amos 2:8; 3:14; 4:4; 5:5; 7:9, 13; 8:14; 9:1; 
Hos. 4:13, 15; 8:1; 9:4, 8, 15; 10:8; 12:11; Isa. 1:12; 6:1, 4; Mic. 
3:12. 

3. Sacrifice: Exod. 20:24; 23:18; 24:5; 34:25; 1 Kings 3:4; 
12:26-33; Isa. 1:11-13; Hos. 3:4; 4:13, 19; 6:6; 8:13; 9:4; 11:2; 
13:2; 1 Kings 8:5; 18:30-38; 12:26-33; Deut. 27:6^,7; Amos 
4:4 f.; 5:22-25. 

4. Feasts: Exod. 34:18-25; 23:14-17 ; 1 Kings 8:2, 65 f.; 12:32 f.; 
9:25; 2 Kings 4: 23; Amos 5:21 ; 8:10; Hos. 2:11; 5:7; 9:5; 12:9; 
Isa. 1: 13 f. 

5. The Sabbath: Exod. 20:8-11; 23:10—12; 34:21; 21:2-11; 
2 Kings 4:23; 11:5, 7, 9; Amos 8:5; Hos. 2:11; Isa. 1:13. 

6. The Clean and Unclean: Exod. 23:19^/ 34:26^/ 22:31; 2 
Kings 5: 10-14; Isa. 6:5; Amos 7:17; Hos. 9:3 ; Isa. 1:16; 6:5. 

7. Prayer: Gen. 18:22 f. ; 19:18-22; 20:7,17; 24:12-14; 25:21; 
30:6, 17, 22; 32:9-12; 35:3; Exod. 3:7, 9; 5:22 f. ; 8:8, 12, 29 ff. ; 
9:28 ff.; io:i7ff. ; 14:10, 15; 15:25; 17:4, 8-15; 32:11-14, 30-32; 
33:7-11; 34:9; Numb. 10:35 f.; 11:1-3, 10-15, J 8; 12:13; 14:13-19; 
21:7; 23:10; Josh. 7:6-9; 10:12-14; 24:7; 1 Kings 3:6-9; 18:24-40; 
2 Kings 4:33; 6:17-20. 

8. The Vow: Gen. 14:21 ff. ; 28:20 ff.; 31:13; Numb. 21:1-3. 

9. Blessings and Cursings: Gen. 3:14, 17; 4:11; 9:25 f.; 12:3; 
27:27-29, 35, 39 f.; 48:15 f-5 49 :I ~ 2 7; Exod. 12:32; 21:17; 23:21, 
25-31; Numb. 22:6; 24:9; Deut. 33:1-29. 

10. The Ban: Exod. 22:19; Numb. 21:2; Josh. 8:26. 

11. The Oath: Gen. 14:22; 15:8-11, 17 f.; 21:22-24; 22:15; 
24:1-3,27; 25:33; 26:3,26-31; 31:53; 42:15; 47^29550:25; Exod. 
13:19; Josh. 2:12-14, 20; 6:26; 1 Kings 1:13, 17, 30, 51 f . ; 2:23 f. r 
36-46. 

12. The Fast: Exod. 34:28; 24:18; 1 Kings 21:9, 12, 27. 

13. Use of Oracles, Urim and Thummim, Ephod, Lot, etc. : Gen. 
24:12-14; 25:22 f . ; Numb. 24:3, 15; Deut. 33:8; Josh. 16:1; 17:14, 
17; 2 Kings 8:7 ff. ; Amos 2:11, 16; Hos. 3:4; Isa. 15:1; 17:14; 
Mic. 2:5. 



JO PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

14. Magic, Divination, etc.: Gen. 44:5, 15; Exod. 22:17 f. ; Numb. 
22:7; 23:23; 2 Kings 9:22; Isa. 2:6; Mic. 3:6 f., 11. 

15. Mourning Customs : Gen. 37:34^ ; 1 Kings 21:27; 20:31!.; 
Amos 1:16; 8:10; Isa. 3:24; Mic. 1:8, 16. 

16. Circumcision : Exod. 4:24 ff. ; Josh. 5:2 f., 9. 

§73. Constructive Study. — Upon the basis of the material indicated 
in §72 formulate a general statement which will characterize the 
religious sentiment of the times as reflected in its institutions in 
respect to — 

1. Its purity from superstition. 

2. Its stage of advancement. 

3. Its simplicity or complexity. 

4. Its adaptation to agricultural life. 

5. The presence of elements approved or disapproved by the con- 
temporary or later prophets. 

6. The presence of elements common to other Semitic religions. 

7. The presence of elements peculiar to the Hebrew religion. 

8. The relative importance of the religious and moral elements. 

§ 74. Make a Rapid Survey of the Great Characters and 
Events of the period, with a view to determining in each 
case their significance as relating to the general religious 
thought of the times, or to the more specific form of 
thought represented by the prophets, viz.: 
1 Kings 11: 26-40; 1. The revolt of the ten tribes, with the part played 

12:1-20 r r j 

in this revolt by the prophets. 
1 Kings 12:25— 2 . The organization of Northern Israel by Jeroboam 

I., with the opportunity thus offered for the growth of 

prophecy. 
14:251 3. The invasion of Shishak; its significance to both 

Israel and Judah. 

12:21-24; 14:30; 4. The civil wars of Israel and Tudah, their occasion, 

15:8,3a. 

together with the gains and losses incurred therein. 

15:9-24. 5. The revival in Judah under Asa; its form, charac- 

ter, and results for the future. 

16:15-34, etc. 6. The work of Omri and his dynasty ; its recogni- 

tion in the Assyrian records ; and its religious significance. 

16:31. 7. Affiliation with Phoenicia; its occasion; its rela- 

tionship to the old Canaanitish regime. 

17:1—19:21. 8. The work of Elijah; its significance for later 

prophetic work. 



BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 7 I 

g. Relations with Syria, that is, Damascus; their 14:18; 20:1-34; 

22 : 1 ff . 

bearing upon the historical development of this period. 

10. The beginning of relations with Assyria (the 2 Kings 16: 71 
battle of Karkar) ; its meaning for the future. 

11. Relations with Moab, and Moab's revolt. m. 

12. Relations between Syria and Assyria, and their 1 Kings 16:9 ff. 
meaning from Israel's point of view. 

13. The growing strength of Baalism under Omri's 1 Kings 18 : 19 ff. 
dynasty. 

14. The accession of Jehu's dynasty, with the pro- 2 Kings 9:1— 10: 

36 
phetic purpose sought to be gained through it. 

15. Relations of Israel, Damascus, and Assyria in the 2 Kings 13:3-7, 

24 f . 
times of Jehu's dynasty. 

16. The work of Elisha, its political, as well as its 2:1-8:15. 
religious meaning. 

17. The sons of the prophets, their earlier and their 
later position in prophecy. 

18. The reigns of Jeroboam II. and Uzziah, as repre- 2 Kings 14:23-29; 

15: 1-7. 
senting the highest political and commercial develop- 
ment reached by Israel and Judah. 

19. Amos and his work; its antecedents and its 
results. 

20. Hosea and his work, in relation to Amos. 

21. Isaiah's early work in Judah. isa. chaps. 2-5, 6, 

22. Micah and his work. Mic. 1:1—3:12. 

23. The Syro-Ephraimitish war, its purpose and its 2 Kings 16: 1-20; 

iScl. y CilclpS* 7y O* 

issue. 

24. The capture of Damascus by Tiglath-pileser. 

25. The attitude of Egypt in the days of the Northern 
kingdom. 

26. The Palestinian revolt against Assyria, its occa- 
sion and the outcome. 

27. The capture of Samaria by Sargon, its meaning 2 Kings, chap. 17. 
in the development of Israelitish religion and thought. 

On the history of this period see : Ewald, History of Israel, 
Vol. IV, pp. 1-200 ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of 
Israel, pp. 457-77 ; Kittel, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 
205-311, 329-54; Kent, A History of the Hebrew People, Vol. I, 
PP- 3-45, 57-76, 98-104; Guthe, art. "Israel," §§28-32, Encyclo- 
pcedia Biblica; F. H. Woods, art. " Kingdom of Israel," Hastings's 
Dictionary of the Bible; Ottley, A Short History of the Hebrews to 



72 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

the Roman Period, pp. 158-92; Wade, Old Testament History, pp. 
312-64; H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, pp. 177-237; Stade, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, pp. 344-57, 519-602; Guthe, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 129-94; Winckler, Geschichte 
Israels in Einzeldarstellungen, Teil I, pp. 133-55, 160-71. 

§75. Constructive Study. — Consider the general religious progress 
indicated by these events and movements, and formulate the same pro- 
visionally under the heads given below. This provisional statement 
will be used later in securing a still more accurate expression of the 
thought of the period. 

1. The nation's conception of Jehovah. 

2. The existence of other gods than Jehovah. 

3. Faith in Jehovah's power to deliver. 

4. Development of methods of worship. 

5. Israel's attitude toward other peoples. 

6. Israel's conception of its own future. 

7. Current opinion as to the rewards of righteousness. 

8. Current opinion as to the consequence of sin. 

9. The standard of conduct in higher and lower classes. 

10. The general state of religion. 

11. Means of religious propaganda. 

12. The Northern kingdom, in contrast with the Southern from a 
religious point of view. 

§76. The Historical Background of this period is before us, includ- 
ing, as it does, (1) the literary activity of the times, (2) the institutional 
history, (3) the contemporaneous history, (4) the great lives and move- 
ments inside the nation itself. Our next task is to ask and, as definitely 
as possible, to answer these questions : What was the actual product of 
prophetic activity in this historical period ? What general and par- 
ticular results were achieved by the prophets in connection with this 
historical epoch ? What new truth was contributed by them ? What 
old truth received new emphasis, and took on new expression ? In 
brief, what did the world of thought possess at the end of this period 
which it would not have possessed if in the history of Northern Israel 
there had been no prophets ? 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE PRODUCT OF PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM FROM 933-800 B. C. 

877. The Prophetic Revolt in 033 B. C. — After an 1 Kings 11:29 ff.; 

oil * ^«*J 12 : x_2o ; 12 : 15. 

examination of 1 Kings 12 : 1-20 and 1 Kings 11 : 26-31, 1 
consider — 

1. The importance of the part played in this revolt 
by Ahijah, together with (1) the significance of the fact 
that Ahijah came from Shiloh ; (2) the explanation of the 
revolt presented by the writer himself; (3) to what extent 
it was, perhaps, a contest between the new civilization of 
Solomon's times and the narrower spirit of the past. 

2. The influence which may have been exerted by 
such special factors as (1) the democratic spirit in gen- 
eral; (2) the objection to a non-elective or hereditary 
monarchy; (3) jealousy of the dominance of Judah and 4:7-19. 
of the favor shown her by Solomon, e. g., in excusing her 
from the obligation of providing for the king's table; 

(4) antagonism (in anticipation of Josiah's reformation 
in 621 B. C.) to the temple-worship emphasized in Jeru- 
salem in opposition to the more liberal and popular 
system of local sanctuaries; (5) oppressive taxation; (6) 
the old cleavage between the north and south, occasioned 
in part by the later entrance of the southern clans into 
Canaan and the marked difference in the character of the 
two regions, as illustrated, e. g., by the schism after the 

death of Saul, and by the conduct of Judah and Israel * Sam. 19:11- 

15; 40-43; 
after the defeat and death of Absalom. 20:1-22. 

3. The definite statements attributing the revolt to 
the influence of the prophets, together with (1) the actual 
result of the revolt in so far as it affected prophecy ; (2) 
the contrast between the situation in Northern Israel and 
in Judah, so far as it concerned prophecy. 

4. The indorsement of the act by a later writer, and 1 Kings 11:32-39. 

x The order of the narrative of Jeroboam's movements varies greatly in the Septua- 
gint from that found in the Hebrew Bible. The two narratives should be carefully 
compared and estimated. See, e. g., Burney, Notes on the Hebrezu Text of the Books of 
Kings, pp. 163-69; Skinner, Kings ("New-Century Bible"), pp. 443-46. 

73 



74 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

12:22-24. his expansion of the explanation, together with (1) the 

further indication of the prophetic attitude through She- 

Hos. 8:4; 13:11. maiah ; (2) the different attitude held by Hosea; (3) the 

attitude toward Jeroboam of still later prophetism, as seen 

1 Kings, chap. in the story of the prophet from Tudah and in the story of 
13; 14:1-19. A , .. . J r r J J 

Ahijah. 

5. What is to be said to the claims, (1) that Jeroboam's 

practice in establishing local sanctuaries was merely the 

continuation of the national practice; (2) that the use of 

material emblems to represent Jehovah was nothing new 

or strange, the command against such representation 

being something still in the future; and (3) that the 

wholesale condemnation by the writer in Kings represents 

the opinion of a later generation, and not even that of 

the best contemporary thought ? 

See : Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 
457 f.; Wade, Old Testament History, pp. 312-23; Kent, A History 
of the Hebrew People, Vol. II, pp. 16-25; Kuenen, The Religion of 
Israel, Vol. I, pp. 198 f.; Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient 
Hebrews, pp. 83-86 ; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol. I, pp. 
J 55 — 58 ; Cheyne, art. "Jeroboam," Encyclopcedia Biblica; White, 
art. "Ahijah," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; J. C. Todd, 
Politics and Religion in Ancient Israel, pp. 90-99 ; H. P. Smith, Old 
Testament History, pp. 1 77-80; CORNILL, History of the People of 
Israel, pp. 93-96; KlTTEL, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 241-46 ; 
Renan, History of the People of Israel, Vol. II, pp. 149-54: C. F. 
Kent, "Jeroboam and the Disruption," Biblical World, Vol. IV, 
pp. 38-48; G. A. Cooke, art. "Jeroboam," Hastings's Dictionary 
of the Bible; Guthe, art. "Israel," Encyclopedia Biblica, col. 2238. 

Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte, p. 92 ; 
WlNCKLER, Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen, pp. I— 15 ; Guthe, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 129-32; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes 
Israel, Vol. I, pp. 344-49. 

Also the commentaries on Kings by Skinner, Burney, Farrar, 
Kittel, and Benzinger. 

§ 78. The Prophetic Work of Elijah must be gathered 
from traditions concerning it, in the absence of any 
writings from the prophet himself. 

1. Make a study of 1 Kings, chaps. 17-19, (1) noting 
1 Kings 17:1a. the circumstances of Elijah's first appearance ; the miracu- 
17:2-24. lous preservation of his life ; his meeting with Ahab; the 

18:18. ' contest between the prophet and the king; Elijah's chal- 

18:19-41. lenge to the Baal prophets and its outcome; the storm 



PROPHECY FROM 933-8OO B. C. 75 

and the prophet's flight; his journey to Horeb and his J®:*!^ 1 ^ 4 * 
vision; his commission to Elisha; and (2) consider (a) x 9:i9-2i. 
the real point at issue between Ahab and Elijah, viz., 
Baalistic corruption of Jehovah- worship; (p) Ahab's situa- 
tion and point of view; (c) the significance of the presence 18:4, 19; cf. 22: 6. 
of so many Jehovah prophets and so many Baal prophets ; 
(a 7 ) the role of Jezebel ; (e) what was involved in Baalism 
as Elijah saw it; (/) the victory or failure of Elijah's 
contest; (g) the lesson of the vision at Horeb, viz., the 
presence of Jehovah in the sound of gentle stillness; (h) 19:12. 
Elijah's accomplishment of the commission received at 
Horeb. 

2. Examine 1 Kings, chap. 21, the story of Naboth's 
vineyard, (1) noting the account of the seizure of the vine- 21:1-16. 

1 1 1 i 1 T 1 1 2i: 17, l8, 20. 

yard; the prophets message and prediction; and the 2 Kings 9:25, 26. 
fulfilment in connection with Jehu ; and (2) consider (a) 
Ahab's character as revealed by this incident ; {b) the 
issue here between Elijah and Ahab, viz., righteousness 
in government; (V) its later interpretation by Jehu. 

3. Formulate, in the light of what has already been 
done, a statement covering the following points: (1) 
Ahab's political policy; (2) the danger which was involved 
in it to the Jehovah religion ; (3) evidence against the 
supposition that Ahab really desired to substitute the 
Baal religion for that of Jehovah; (4) how far was it a 
political as well as a religious crisis? (5) did Elijah 
distinguish sharply between Baal and Jehovah ? (6) what 
was Elijah's idea, in contrast with that of other prophets 
of his time, as to Jehovah's relation to Israel ? (7) the con- 
ception of Jehovah which especially appealed to Elijah; 
(8) the ethical idea involved in his stand for righteous 
administration of the royal office; (9) the connection 
between this idea and his conception of Jehovah. 

4. Examine later allusions to Elijah and his work, 2 Kings, chap. 1. 
noting (1) the story of his translation; (2) the expecta- Mai. 4:5, 6; 
tion of his return, as expressed in the Old Testament, ^/fiJUr' 
and in the New Testament in connection with John the fJhnV-Vs^ 5 ' 
Baptist; (3) the estimate of him entertained in the days Eccius. 48 : 1 ff. 
of the son of Sirach ; (4) other references in the New Matt. 17:3; 
Testament, representing him as appearing with Moses at Luke 9:' 30. 



j6 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

the transfiguration of Jesus; (5) his place in Jewish tradi- 
tion, as the expected guest at every Passover; (6) his 
place in Greek tradition, in connection with mountain- 
lore; (7) his place in Mohammedan tradition, as el-Hadir? 
the possessor of eternal youth and the champion of the 
rights of men. 

5. Consider, still further, (1) the position of Elijah 
as a protestor {cf. the Rechabites) against the amenities 
of civilization, and a perpetuator of the old ideals of 
the nomadic life; (2) his attitude, in so far as it may be 
discovered, toward ritual, and toward the law as it is 
given, for example, in Deuteronomy ; (3) his attitude 
toward idolatry ; (4) was he a monotheist, or rather a 
henotheist ? (5) in what particular point lay his great 
moral power? (6) for what, in brief, does he stand in the 
progress of religious life and thought? 

See T. K. Cheyne, The Hallowing of Criticism (1888); Idem, 
art. " Prophetic Literature," Encyclopedia Biblica, cols. 3859-63 ; 
Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 29-36 ; W. R. Smith, The Prophets of 
Israel (2d ed.), pp. 76-89 ; Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient 
Hebrews, pp. 91-94; A. B. Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy, pp. 
62-71 ; Kittel, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 262-70; Mc- 
Curdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vol. I, pp. 257-59 ! 
H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, pp. 187-94; J. Strachan, art. 
"Elijah," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible ; Wellhausen, Prole- 
gomena to the History of Israel, 286-93; W. E. Addis, art. "Elijah," 
Encyclopedia Biblica; Renan, History of the People of Israel, Vol. 
II, pp. 229-42 ; Kent, A History of the Hebrew People, Vol. II, pp. 
46-54; J. C. T 'odd, Politics and Religion in Ancient Israel, pp. 195- 
97; Wade, Old Testament History, pp. 335-39; McFadyen, The 
Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly Historians, pp. 198-204; 
Kuenen, Religion of Israel, Vol. I, pp. 355— 57 ; Robertson, Early 
Religion of Israel (see Index) ; Schdltz, Old Testament Theology, 
Vol. I, pp. 241 f., 297; Batten, The Hebrew Prophet, pp. 171-85. 

Gunkel, Preussische Jahrbiicher, 1898, pp. 18-51 ; Smend, 
lehrbuch der alltestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte, pp. 152-58; 
Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthums, 
pp. 60-76; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion pp. 82-87 
256; Guthe, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 175-79; Stade, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, pp. 539~47 ; Meinhold, Studien 
zur israelitischen Religionsgeschichte, Band I : Der heilige Rest, 
pp. 2-32. 

Also the commentaries on Kings by Skinner, Benzinger, 
Kittel, Farrar, and Burney. 
2 Wieland, Legenden, p. 177. 



PROPHECY FROM 933-8OO B. C. 'JJ 

§79. The Prophetic Work of Elisha is in sharp con- 
trast with that of Elijah. It partakes of the wonder- 
element to even a greater extent. Like the story of 
Elijah, it is contained in narratives coming from different 
periods. 

1. Make a study of Elisha's introduction to the 1 Kings 19: 19-21. 
prophetic office, (1) noting his call ; his home and social 

standing; the question he asks, with Elijah's answer; 

his presence with Elijah in the latter's series of farewell 2 Kings 2: 1-6. 

visits to the prophetic societies; his investiture in office; 2:7. 

2 : 9 f . 

his request for a double portion of Elijah's spirit; his 2:11-18. 
separation from Elijah; and (2) consider (a) the signifi- 
cance of the fact that Elijah's work was to be completed 
by one who by birth and position occupied so different 
a social place; (b) the meaning of the symbolical action 
of the mantle; (c) the force of the request for a double 
portion ; (d) the controlling motive which lies back of 
the story of the separation by the whirlwind. 

2. Study the miracles ascribed to Elisha: 

a) The dividing of the Jordan with Elijah's mantle ; 2 Kings 2:14; 

b) The sweetening of the waters; 2:19-22; 

c) The cursing of the children ; 2:23,24; 

d) The providing of Jehoram's armies with water; 3:16-20; 

e) The increase of the widow's cruse of oil; 4:1-7; 
/) The birth of a son to the Shunammite; 4:13-17; 
g) The raising of the Shunammite's son; 4:32-37; 
h) The healing of the pottage; 4:38-41; 
1) The multiplication of the loaves and grain; 4:42-44; 

j) The healing of Naaman's leprosy ; 5:1-14; 

k) The smiting of Gehazi with leprosy; 5:20-27; 

/) The making of the axe-head to float; 6:1-7; 

m) The smiting of the Syrian host with blindness; 6:14-23; 

n) The rising of a corpse on touching his bones; i3:2of. 
and consider (1) the extreme cruelty of one or two, 
and the extreme beneficence of the great majority; (2) 
their close association with the work of the prophetic 
societies (see § 7); (3) the fact that they represent Elisha 
as a kind of wonder-worker (cf. also the traditions of 
Elijah and Jonah); (4) the resemblance, in some cases, 
to the miracles performed by Jesus ; (5) the fact that we 



78 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

find the miracle-stories so abundant in connection with 
Elijah and Elisha as compared with later prophets. 

3. Examine the account of Elisha's various dealings 
2 Kings 3: 11-20. w ith kings and rulers, (1) noting his presence in the cam- 
6:8-23. P a ig n against Mesha, king of Moab ; his magnanimous 
6-.24ff. conduct in connection with the entrapped Syrians; his 
8:7-15; 9:1-13. prediction of relief in the siege of Samaria by the Syrians; 
13:14^. his interview with Hazael ; his anointing of Jehu; the 

death-bed scene with Joash, Jehu's grandson ; and (2) 
consider (a) his political activity and his character as a 
statesman; (b) his gentleness and magnanimity; (c) the 
responsibility of prophetism for the revolt of Jehu and 
its consequences; {d) the general nature of the predic- 
tions which he utters ; (e) the long duration of his service. 

4. Study, in particular, the revolt of Jehu as instigated 
by Elisha, and consider (1) the position taken by Elijah; 

1 Kings 21 : 17-24 ; (2) the presence of Jehu when Ahab receives Elijah's 

2 Kings 9 : 25 1 v 7 J 

1 Kings 19 : 16 f. ; rebuke; (t,) the commission of Elijah as executed by 

2 Kings 2: 13. / \ 

Elisha; (4) the misfortunes suffered by Israel which could 

be interpreted as indications of Jehovah's displeasure 

2 Kings 1:2-4, with the attitude of Ahab and his immediate successors 

16L; 6:8ff.; 

1:1; 3:4ft.; toward Baalism, e. g., the death of Ahab in battle; the 

9: 14 — 10: 31. 

accidental killing of his son Ahaziah ; the breaking out 

again of the Syrian wars ; the revolt of Moab ; (5) the 

actual facts of the so-called reformation ; (6) the history 

of Baalism in Israel and Judah after this time; (7) the 

significance of all this for prophecy. 

5. Examine later allusions to Elisha and his work, 

2 Kings 13 : 20 f. noting (1) the story of restoration to life after contact 
Eccius. 48:12-14. with Elisha's bones; (2) the eulogy pronounced upon 
Luke4:27- him by the son of Sirach ; (3) the only mention in the 

New Testament. 

6. Consider: in general (1) the significance of the 
2 Kings 4: 7, 9, title "man of God" used of Elisha, in all, twenty -nine 

1 6 22 6tC 

times ; (2) the full sense in which he may be said to have 
finished the work of Elijah ; (3) his relation to the pro- 

2:nf.; 3:15; phetic societies (§§ 7, 80); (4) his visions, and his use of 

2:igff.;'4:42f.; music in ecstasy; (5) his easy familiarity with the people 

and his fondness for human companionship ; (6) his agri- 

1 Kings 19: 19-21. cultural disposition, as compared with Elijah's 'nomadic 



PROPHECY FROM 933-8OO B. C. 79 

tastes; (7) his entire lack of originality (cf. Elijah); (8) 2Kings4:iff. 
was the sum of his religion "to visit the fatherless and 
widows in their affliction" ? 

See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel (2d ed.) pp. 85, 87, 116, 
131, 208; Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 13 f., 33; McFadyen, 
Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly Historians, pp. 206-12; 
McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, §§ 239-44, 612, 
935; A. B. Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy, pp. 49, 291 ; Todd, 
Politics and Religion in Ancient Israel, pp. 112, 1 41-44, 1 51-56; 
Strachan, art. " Elisha," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; W. E. 
Addis, art. "Elisha," Encyclopedia Biblica; Wellhausen, Prole- 
gomena to the History of Israel, p. 463 ; Kittel, History of the Hebrews, 
Vol. II, pp. 214 f., 268, 278, 280 ff., 290, 292 f.; Kent, History of 
the Hebrew People, Vol. II, pp. 61-69; Renan, History of the People 
of Israel, Vol. II, pp. 229 ff.; Wade, Old Testament History, pp. 
33°, 339, 341-43, 351 f-5 Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient 
Hebrews, pp. 94 f.; Kuenen, Religion of Israel, Vol. I, pp. 360 ff.; 
Liddon, Sermons on Old Testament Subjects, pp. 195, 334", Ottley, 
A Short History of the Hebrews, pp. 173 f., 178; Robertson, Early 
Religion of Israel (1896), pp. 53, 61, 84 f., 225; Schultz, Old Testa- 
ment Theology, Vol. I, pp. 241, 243, 297; H. P. Smith, Old Testa- 
ment History, p. 206. 

DlLLMANN, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie, pp. 167, 
172 ff., 481 ; Smend, lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsge- 
schichte, pp. 80, 82, 90, 150, 158 f.; Marti, Geschichte der israeliti- 
schen Religion, pp. 85, 134 ; Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israeliti- 
schen Prophetenthums, pp. 76-81 ; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes 
Israel, Vol. I, pp. 54 2 ff-5 Guthe, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 
175-79. 

§ 80. Other Prophets and the Prophetic Societies deserve 
our attention. Note must be made of (1) "the man of 1 Kings 13 : 1-32. 
God who came out of Judah;" (2) the "old prophet 22:9, 13-28. 
in Bethel ; " (3) Micaiah ben Imlah ; (4) Jonah ben Amittai, 2 Kings 14: 25. 
(5) the dervish who encountered Ahab ; (6) Jonadab ben 1 Kings 20:35-43. 

t-» 1 1 t • i 1 , 1 1 1 2 Kings 10 : 15 f . 

Rechab ; and, indeed, the many whose names have not 
come down to us. 

1. Consider (1) the fact that in the days of Elijah and 1 Kings 22:6; 

1 8 * A 

Elisha the prophets are numbered by hundreds; (2) the 

presence of a class known as nazirites, who resemble the cf. judg., chap. 

prophets in some ways, and are spoken of by Amos in Amo'sVn f * 

connection with them ; (3) the account of another order 

or family founded by Jonadab, who was a co-worker with 2 Kings 10:15 f., 

Jehu against Baalism ; (4) the fact that at this time (as in c ->' ier -> c a P-35. 

that of Samuel) the prophetic societies were nourishing. 



80 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

2. Go back to Samuel's times and recall (i) that Samuel 
i Sam. 10:5. was called a seer; but (2) that in his days there were 

bands of dervishes wandering about, (a) with whom Saul 

10:9-12; 10:5. became identified, to the amazement of his friends; {b) 

19:19-24. who stimulated their activity by music; (c) who some- 

2 Kings 9:". times became frenzied and stripped themselves of all 

outer clothing; (d) who, indeed, were called "mad" by 

those who knew them ; (3) that these dervishes (called 

nebhiini) were wholly religious in their character, in con- 

1 Sam. 9:6-10. trast with the seer, who was probably secular {cf. the story 

10:5; 19:20. of Saul, his servant, and the lost asses); (4) that Samuel 

was probably not the director of these bands in his day, 

but was entirely distinct from them; (5) that Elijah, one 

of their number, a true fanatic in the good sense, and 

wholly religious in his interests, rose so high above his 

fellows as to become their leader, and as such occupied 

a plane far higher than that of the order itself; (6) that 

these forces were organized and used by Elisha in the 

1 Sam. 10: 5; struggle against Baalism (cf. their various headquarters 

4:1,38; 6:1; at Gibeah, Ramah, Gilgal, Mount Ephraim, Bethel, and 

2 . 3 j 5* 

Jericho). 

3. Consider, now, (1) the relation which these pro- 
phetic communities or societies sustained toward the 
people at large and the estimate in which they were held 
by the people; (2) their relation, likewise, to the priests; 

Cf. Jer. 29:26; (3) the fact that the service of "prophesying" was a joint 

1 Sam. 19:20. act, presided over by one of their number; (4) the occur- 
I9 :i8ff. rence of sacred processions as at the "dwellings" in 

2 Sam. 6:5; isa. Ramah; (5) the use of music (hand-drum and pipe) as 
1 Kings, chap. 18. on other festal occasions; (6) the more violent exercises 

of the Baal-prophets ; (7) the suggestion that the institu- 
tion known as the prophetic order was adopted from the 
religion of the Canaanites. 3 
20:35-43. 4. Consider, also, (1) the story of the dervish, his 

20:41. fanaticism, the marks between his eyes; (2) the hairy 

3 Consider, in this connection, the significance of the fact that the earliest known 
instance of prophetic ecstasy occurred at Byblos in northern Syria, that it was at the 
royal court, and that it was in connection with a transaction involving both religion 
and national policy. The incident is related by an Egyptian legate to Byblos about 
1 100 B.C. in the report which he made to his Egyptian prince. An English transla- 
tion of this report by J. H. Breasted may be found in The American Journal of 
Semitic Languages and Literatures^ o\ XXI (1905), pp. 100-109; see especially p. 105. 



PROPHECY FROM 933-8OO B. C. 8 1 

mantle worn by these prophets ; (3) the use of music (see Cf. Zech. 13:4. 

above); (4) the "madness" often attributed to them (see 

above); (5) the fact that they have become an order or 

guild ; and compare with this (a) the companies of 

modern Mohammedan dervishes; (6) the pre-Mohamme- 

dan dervishes; (c) uncontrolled religious enthusiasm as 

sometimes witnessed today. 

5. Note (1) the attitude of Amos a little later, toward Amos7:i4. 
all this class, in denying that he is one of them ; (2) the 7: ". 
understanding of Amaziah who, in spite of the prophet's 
denial, classes him as one of them; (3) the attitude of 1 Kings 22 : 19-23. 
Micaiah ben Imlah toward them; (4) the really funda- 
mental and remarkable difference between Amos and 
Hosea, as compared with these professional prophets; 
and consider (a) the stages of development from Samuel 
(originally only a seer) through Elijah (a religious fanatic 
of the noblest type), to Amos (a prophet in the highest 
sense); (3) the character of these hundreds of prophets of 13:1ft. 
a lower type ; {c) the careers of such prophets as the 
"man of God from Judah," the prophet of Bethel, on 13:1-32. 
the one hand, and on the other, of such a man as Jonah 2 Kings 14: 5 
ben Amittai, who was adviser to Jeroboam II. 

See on the prophetic societies the literature on p. 48, and : 
Cheyne, art. "Prophetic Literature," §8, Encyclopedia Biblica; 
A. B. Davidson, art. " Prophecy and Prophets," Hastings's Dic- 
tionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, p. 109; Cornill, Prophets of Israel, 
pp. 12-15, 28; W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, pp. 85 f., 389-92; 
Robertson, Early Religion of Israel, pp. 83 ff. ; Schultz, Old 
Testament Theology, Vol. I, pp. 240 £f.; Montefiore, Religion of 
the Ancient Hebrews, pp. 76 ff.; Kent, History of the Hebrew 
People, Vol. II, pp. 63-65 ; G. A. Smith, Book of the Twelve Proph- 
ets, Vol. I, pp. 26 f.; H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, p. 
193; Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 100 ff.; Kuenen, 
Religion of Israel, Vol. I, pp. 193-202, 316 ff.; Wellhausen, Prole- 
gomena to the History of Israel^ p. 461 ; Kittel, History of the 
Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 265 ff.; W. R. Harfer, Amos and Hosea (1905), 
pp. xlix-lviii. 

MAYBAUM, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthums, 
pp. 30-59; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, pp. 476-79 ; 
Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte, pp. 79- 
94; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion, pp. 81 f., 121 ff.; 
Schw ally, Semitische Kreigsaltertiimer, Heft I (1901), pp. 103-105 . 
Franckh, "Die Prophetie in der Zeit vor Amos," Beitrdge zur 
Fbrderung Christl. Theologie, IX (1905), pp. 29-65. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF THE EARLY HISTORIES 

§ 8 1 . Understanding that the Judean Prophetic Narra- 
tive Called J (§ 58, 1) had its origin in Southern Israel 
between 800 and 850 B. C, we may ask ourselves : 
What was its message? What ideas, new and old, con- 
cerning God, and man, and life did it teach to the 
people of that period? This message, we must note, is not 
the story, nor the series of stories, which J contains, but 
the lesson which these stories were meant to convey. It 
will be discovered by (a) analyzing the stories one by 
one, {b) determining the underlying ideas, and (e) study- 
ing the point of connection between these ideas and the 
times of the prophet who tells the story. The following 
selections will perhaps indicate the scope of the narra- 
tive and furnish a basis for the inquiry proposed. 

Gen. 2:4^—3 : 21. 1. The formation of man after the animals; the gar- 

den of Eden, and the temptation ; sin, followed by the 
curse and expulsion from the garden. 

4:1-26. 2. The murder of Abel by Cain; the building of the 

first city, and the progress of sin in the development of 
the arts of civilization. 

6:1-8; 7:1-5, 7-10, -z. The sinful intercourse between angels and women, 

12, 176, 32 1; 8: 

6-12, 13&, 20-22. the birth of giants; further development of sin, followed 
by the deluge, in which all are destroyed save the family 
of Noah. 
9:18-27; 11:1-9; 4. The beginning of vine-culture and drunkenness; 

11:28 ff.; 12:1- & ° 

4a- the further growth of sin, followed by the confusion of 

tongues and the dispersion, with the selection of 
Abraham's line. 
16:16, 2, 4-14; 19: 5. The stories of the several collateral branches of 

25:6. ' Abraham's family, viz., Moab and Ammon, Ishmael, 

Arab descendants through Keturah, and others, with the 
selection of Isaac's line. 
25 2f I_2 46 ; 27 bi a a 6 - The stories of Esau an( * Jacob, with the account of 

*£. 1 3fc°' 2 £ Jacob's sons. 

82 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF THE EARLY HISTORIES 83 

7. The story of Joseph, sold into Egypt, who becomes 39: *-23; 43 £—44: 
Pharaoh's chief minister, with the settlement of Jacob 6&. 

and his sons in Egypt. 

8. The oppression of Israel in Egypt; Moses; his Bxod. 1:15-200, 

soiourn in Midian ; his commission ; the struggle with 4&, 6, 9&-13, 15, 

J ' ' °° 21 f. ; 4:17!; 5: 

Pharaoh, the passage of the Red Sea, and the march to it, 4; 7: 15,176, 

Sinai. 

0. The covenant made at Sinai ; the revolt and Exod., chaps. 20- 
y ' 23; 32:1-6, 15- 

massacre; the journey toward Canaan; the spying of 24, 35; Numb. 
' J J ' rj ° 13:20, 210, 23, 

the land; the determination of the route around Edom 2 4, a©; 14:25; 

7 2o:i&, 14-18, 

and Moab and through the kingdom of Sihon. 21a, 22a; etc. 

10. The stories of Balaam. Numb 22:8-10, 

12-16, etc. 

11. The story of the death of Moses, and of Joshua, Deut. 34: 5 f.; 

i • 1 r l t 1 l r JOSh. l:lf., 10, 

his successor; the passage of the Jordan ; the capture or 3:654:41; 6:1, 
Jericho and Ai; the covenant made at Shechem. 8 : 18, -24 ;' chap! 

Keep in mind (1) that J is history (not like D, § 29, 5, 
which is largely legal), and that this history indicates the 
spirit of the prophet (not, like P, § 29, 5, which is strongly 
priestly); (2) that J, like other prophets, speaks for God, 
i. e., he interprets the events of past times from the point 
of view of God, as he conceives him ; (3) that J selects 
only such material as will enable him to accomplish the 
purpose he has in mind ; (4) that his selection, therefore, 
will be greatly affected by his thought concerning God 
and sin, i. e., by the thought on these subjects which he 
wishes to present to his contemporaries. 1 

§82. Constructive Study. — Study each section of J included in the 
analysis given above (§ 81), with a view to collecting data that will 
throw light upon the following heads : 

1. The prophetic character of the narrative. 

2. The idea of God which it represents, including all references to 
an overruling providence. 

3. The idea entertained concerning man and his relation to God, 
sin, and deliverance. 

4. The ethical standards which the narrative seems to advocate. 

5. The attitude indicated toward forms of worship. 

x The pragmatic element in J (and in E) is, of course, but slightly manifest, if 
we compare it with the later representation of this same element in D and P. At the 
same time, neither J nor E may be regarded as a collection of uncolored folk-lore. 
Cf. George F. Moore, art. " Historical Literature," Encyclopedia Biblica. 



84 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

6. The feeling of the writer toward outside nations and his idea of 
Israel's future as a nation. 

7. The degree of importance attached to the land of Canaan and 
the representations made concerning it. 

§83. The Prophetic Element in the narrative as a 
whole should be formulated. In connection with such 
effort — 

1. Study the general framework of the narrative, 
from the story of Eden to the settlement in Canaan ; 

(1) Is a definite purpose to be discovered? Does the 
purpose relate to the origin of the people of Israel ? 

(2) Is there evidence of a desire to connect Jehovah 
with this origin and with the subsequent development ? 

2. Is the spirit throughout that of insight into 
Jehovah's plans, recognition of the consequences of sin, 
encouragement toward higher ideals of life ? 

3. Is there a reflective element to be seen in the fond- 
Gen. 6:1-4; 6:5— ness for incorporating (1) songs and sayings which 

8:22; 9 :20. 

Gen. 16:13; Exod. involve anthropological observations? or (2) remarks 
15:23; Numb. r a \ / 

11:34; Gen. 32: which contain reference to the origin of customs and of 
32. 

names ? (3) Is it possible to make out quite clearly a 

definite purpose which, one may suppose, explains the 

presence in the collection of a given story, or, at all 

events, its general form and coloring ? 

Numb. 22-.3&-36; 4. Is there evident everywhere a strong interest in the 

24:1— 25: 3J/ 

josh. 7: 2— 8:23. national, as distinguished from the institutional? side of 
affairs ? Why is this element to be treated as pre- 
eminently prophetic? 

5. To what extent is the predictive element present? 
Gen. 3:14, 15- Consider, e. g., (1) the first prediction concerning the 
history of sin, its long struggle with mankind, but the 
final triumph of humanity, though wounded in the con- 
gee, 27. flict; (2) the representation of the relations of Shem, 
Gen. 12:1-3; 13: Ham, and Japheth ; (3) the patriarchal blessings (involv- 
27:27-29. ing great numbers, great prosperity, and blessing to the 
49:8-12. world) placed in the mouth of (a) Abraham, (3) Isaac, and 
Numb. 24:17-19. (e) Jacob; (4) the forecast of Israel's future relation to the 
nations. How far, now, are these utterances the very mes- 

9 The narrative of the origin of the Passover (Exod. 12 : 3-16) is the only instance 
in which extended consideration is given in J to any institution. 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF THE EARLY HISTORIES 85 

sage of the prophet for his times, and placed for rhetorical 
and homiletical purposes in the form of prediction ? 

6. Is there to be noted throughout the narrative a 
tendency toward idealism ? Just how can this best be de- 
fined ? Does the writer present pictures of life, which he 
would have his contemporaries observe in order that their 
life, still lower than the ideals presented, may be lifted to 
a higher plane ? Consider the picture thus presented in 
the pen-portrait of (1) Abraham, representing the ideals Gen. 12:1-40, 6-8; 
of intimate acquaintance and communion with Jehovah ; 
(2) Isaac and Jacob, representing the superiority of the 26:6-14,16, 19-33; 
Hebrews in all relations with other peoples because of *4; 32:43-50. 
their especial relation to Jehovah ; (3) Joseph, repre- 39 ^723; 43 =1—44: 
senting the vindication and triumph of the pure and 
upright, notwithstanding the machinations of wicked 
opponents ; (4) the oppression in Egypt and deliverance Exo<Li:8-i2, 14c; 

from the same, representing the wonderful power of w* 8:20—9:7; 
r ° r 11:4-8; 12:29- 

Jehovah in triumphing over the mighty gods of Egypt; 34; etc. 

(5) the giving of the law on Sinai, teaching the awful Exo a. 19:20-25; 
sanctity of Jehovah and the absolute authority of his law; 

(6) Moses, representing the ideal of a national leader, N " mb - 14:41-45; 
taking every step in absolute dependence upon the guid- 
ance of Jehovah; (7) Joshua, representing courage and Josh. 5:13-15^6: 
success due to obedience to Jehovah's command to 17, 19-23. 
exterminate the Canaanites. 

§84. Constructive Study.— Consider the message, in general, 
intended for people living 800 to 850 B. C. contained in a presenta- 
tion of (1) Israel's actual origin under circumstances of so peculiar 
and elevated a character ; (2) the origin of Israel's neighbors under 
circumstances of an entirely opposite character ; (3) the origin of 
customs (e. g., marriage) and of names (e. g., Jacob and Israel); (4) 
stories like that of Cain and Abel, or the angels and women, or the 
elevation of Joseph, or deliverance from Egypt, or the giving of the 
law on Sinai ; (5) so many points relating to the nation as such, at a 
time when Israel believed herself to be a nation side by side with other 
nations ; (6) predictions assuring plenty and prosperity, the degrada- 
tion of enemies, and victory and world-power for Israel herself; (7) 
pictures of ideal life for individual and for nation. 

§ 85. The Conception of God, of supernatural beings, 
and of an overruling providence is after all, the most 



86 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

fundamental element in the message of any prophet. 
What was J's conception of God ? 
<*en. 4:26. 1. Consider (1) the significance of the fact that 

Jehovah is everywhere, from the earliest times to the end, 
the name and title of the Deity; (2) the principal mean- 
ings which have been suggested for Jehovah. 3 

2. Inquire into (1) the writer's representation of 
Jehovah as doing many things ordinarily ascribed to 
men, some of them being quite undignified; e. g., (a) 

2:7; 8:21; 11:7. as molding, blowing, smelling, coming down ; also (6) 

32:24-30; Exod. as fearing, repenting, arguing, etc.; note, further, (c) the 
4:24. 

still more strange representations in the stories of the 

wrestling of Jacob and the circumcision of Moses ; and 

(2) the proper interpretation of this material (a) as 

expressing J's conception of God (&) as reflecting the 

opinion of J's times. 

3. Note the agents through whom Jehovah is repre- 

Gen. 16:7; 24:7, sented as actinar in his intercourse with men, viz., (1) 
40; Exod. 3:2; & \ 

angels — what was the idea entertained in J's times of the 

Numb. 22:22. nature, abode, and function of angels? (2) captains of 
Josh. 5:13-15. o \ / r 

the hosts — what is meant by "hosts" in this phrase, and 
Exod. 13:21. i n tne phrase "Jehovah of hosts?" 4 (3) "pillar of cloud 

3 For example: (1) "The One who is" (Lieblein); (2) the Hebrew equivalent of 
the name of one of the Egyptian gods of light (Roth, Geschichte unserer abend- 
landischen Philosophic, Vol. I, p. 175, note); (3) a translation of the Egyptian phrase 
"Nuk pu nuk" (Wahrmund, Babylonierthum, Israeliterthum und Christenthum, p. 
119); (4) "He will be" (Rashi; Ewald, Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott, Vol. II, pp. 
337 f-); (5) " He who causes (rain or lightning) to fall " (W. R. Smith, Old Testa- 
?nent in the Jewish Church, p. 423); (6) "The Feller" or "Destroyer" (Stade, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, p. 429); (7) "He who causes to be," i. e., "the 
Creator" (Lagarde; Schrader ; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol. II, p. 134); 
(8) "The Breather" (Wellhausen). The meaning and origin of the name are 
discussed in Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol. II, pp. 117-39; Driver, Studia 
Biblica, Vol. I (1885), pp. 1-20; Spoer, " Origin and Interpretation of the Tetra- 
grammaton," American Journal of Semitic Languages, Vol. XVIII (1901), pp. 9—35; 
Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 1-38 ; Barton, A Sketch of Semitic Origins, 
Social and Religious, pp. 269-308 ; Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religions- 
geschichte, Vol. I, pp. 179-254 ; E. Kautzsch, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, 
Vol. V, pp. 625 f.; Delitzsch, Babel and Bible (translated by C. H. W. Johns, 1903), 
pp.71 f., 133 ff. 

4 For the meaning of this phrase see Lohr, Untersuchungen zum Buck Amos, pp. 
37-67; Driver, art. "Lord of Hosts," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; G. A. 
Smith, Book of the Twelve Prophets, Vol. I, pp. 57 f.; E. Kautzsch, Zeitschrift fur 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF THE EARLY HISTORIES 87 

and fire" — what is the force of the symbolism in this 

phrase? (4) a presence — what is meant by this ? Exod. 33:14. 

4. Study other representations concerning Jehovah 

made by T : (1) the instances in which his name is known Gen. 10:9; 24:31. 
J J \ ' / i_ Numb., chaps. 23 

and his worship accepted outside of Israel; (2) the and ;?4- 

vjCH. 20 124 * 20 * 13 i 

meaning of the references to his being the God of the Exod. 3:16 14:5. 
patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; (3) as God of Gen. 24:3, 7. 
heaven and earth; (4) as the Judge of all the earth; (5) Exod. 14:216, 25; 

' v ' J ° Josh. 10:12! 

as a God of unrestricted power; (6) as a moral God, Gen, 3:1-24; 6:5*. 

r v ' t Gen. 19:16; 24:27; 

hating sin; (7) as a God of mercy to those who are in Exod. 34:6. 

& ' v ' ' J Gen. 9:15-17; 

distress; (8) as a God of everlasting faithfulness to those 18:19; 21:33; 

' v ' ° 28:156. 

who are his people; (9) as a God "with" and "in the Gen. 26:3; 28:15; 
r r ' yy/ 39:2; Numb. 14: 

midst of" his worshipers. 9b. 

5. Observe the frequent recurrence of the idea of an 
overruling providence, (1) in which the heroes have an 
abiding faith; (2) of which the progress is "irresistible 

and triumphant," against (a) the nation when antagonis- Numb. 11:31-35. 
tic; (J?) the individual whose sin takes on the form of Numb. 16:266, 
cowardice, fraud, or malice; or U) the nation whose sin Josh. r. 2-26. 

Numb. 14:41-45. 

takes on the form of blindness, cruelty, or deceit. 

§ 86. Constructive Study. — Formulate briefly (on the basis of § 85) 
J's teaching to his times concerning God; and, in connection with the 
statement thus formulated, (1) show the progress in this teaching seen 
in comparing the grossly anthropomorphic representation with other 
representations seemingly inconsistent and vastly higher; (2) compare 
this teaching with that of Elijah and Elisha; (3) indicate the signifi- 
cance, for J's times, of his idea that Jehovah has been worshiped as 
such from the earliest days of history and is so recognized by people 
of other nations; (4) indicate those attributes of God found in J which 
are new ; (5) indicate those attributes which are taken up and empha- 
sized by later prophets; e. g., is not the use of "with" (see above) an 
anticipation of Isaiah's Immanuel ? Is not his doctrine of a God of 
mercy the basis for Hosea's doctrine of divine love? Are there perhaps 

die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. VI (1886), pp. 17-22; Idem, art. "Names," 
§ 123, Encyclopedia Biblica; Idem, art. "Religion of Israel," Hastings's Dictionary 
of the Bible, Vol. V, pp. 636 f.; Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. Ill, p. 62; Schultz, 
Old Testament Theology, Vol. II, p. 141 ; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen 
Religionsgeschichte, pp. 185-88; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten,\o\. V, p- 
77; Schwally, Semitische Kriegsalterthiimer, Vol. I, p. 5; EwALD, Die Lehre der 
Bibelvon Gott, Vol. II, p. 339; Borchert, Theologische Studien und Kritiken{i%qb), 
pp. 619 ff. 



88 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

other cases of anticipation? (6) indicate the divine attributes on which 
J seems to lay greatest emphasis ; (7) show the peculiar appropriateness 
for J's times of the doctrine of an overruling providence as it is pre- 
sented by J in his resume of the patriarchal period. 

§ 87. J's Conception of Man, his relation to God, and 

of sin and deliverance, naturally depends closely upon 

his doctrine of God, the one being a corollary of the 

other. What is it? 

Gen. a:4&-9i 15- i. Consider (1) the story of the origin of man, 

24. 

including as it does the idea of molding from clay, the 

contemporaneous origin of animals, and the later crea- 

2:7. tion of woman ; (2) the writer's teaching of the dualism 

of human nature, the two elements being matter (dust) 

8:21. and spirit, each being independent of the other; (3) 

the character of man, viz., "evil from his youth." (4) 
Is it of man as an individual, or of the people as a whole, 
that this prophet speaks ? 

Gen. 3:1-21. 2. Study (1) the account of the beginning of sin 

3:15, through disobedience; (2) the forecast of the struggle 

between sin and humanity, a struggle in which man will 

4:1-24. at last be victor ; (3) the representation of the writer that 

sin increases with each forward step of civilization, that 

7:1-5. is, with the development of the various arts ; (4) the 

terrible growth of sin, until it is so great that the race 

9:20-27. itself (except a single family) must perish ; (5) the sin of 

11:1-9. Noah in introducing vine-culture; (6) the rebellion of 

men against the Deity, followed by the confusion of 
tongues and the dispersion. 

3. Take up, likewise, the writer's conception of 

Gen. 26:6-13. deliverance from sin, as illustrated (1) in the stories of the 

45:9-11.' heroes, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, and Moses; 

especially their deliverance from evil situations conse- 
quent upon sin, e. g., Isaac's equivocation in calling 
Rebekah his sister, and Abimelech's discovery of the 
deception ; Jehovah blesses Jacob on his way to meet 
Esau whom he has defrauded ; Joseph is freed from 
prison and made governor of Egypt and so enabled to 

14:11-14. help his treacherous brethren ; (2) in the stories of the 

nation's frequent deliverances, in spite of sin, from hos- 
tile foes, and after disgraceful acts involving rebellion 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF THE EARLY HISTORIES 89 

and backsliding ; e. g., the deliverance from Pharaoh's 

pursuing army* notwithstanding the murmuring and lack 

of confidence of the Israelites; the defeat at Gibeon of Josh. 10:1-27; u: 

i, 4-g. 
the five kings allied against Israel ; the victory over 

another body of allies at the waters of Merom. (i) Gen. 3:1-24; 4:9- 

Note, likewise, (a) the fundamental place occupied by 20^33.' 
the idea of Jehovah's attitude toward sin and his readi- 
ness to bring deliverance (cf. the name of Joshua = 

Jesus = Jehovah delivers) ; (p) the prophet's explanation Gen. 3:16-19. 

of all labor and toil, of all misery and suff ering ; (c) the josh. chap. 7; 

Exod. 9:27. 

strictly national coloring of the idea which always appears, 

and the consequent uniqueness of Israel's position among 

the nations; (d) the certainty of the disastrous conse- Gen. 29:26, 31. 

quences of sin in the case of good as well as bad men ; 

e.g., Jacob's treachery repaid by that of Laban; Pharaoh's 

scheme of destroying Israel's children avenged by the Exod. 1:22; xx: 

29 f. 
killing of the first-born of Egypt. 

4. Take up for examination those instances of deliver- 
ance suggested by J, which perhaps point forward to the 
Messianic hope and prepare the way for its realization, 
and include at all events, (1) the promise that the seed of Gen. 3:15. 
the woman shall wage continual warfare with sin as 
represented by the serpent; (2) Isaac's blessing of 27:29a. 
Jacob, which contemplates a future pre-eminence of 
Israel among the nations of the earth ; (3) the outlook 49:10. 
for Judah which finds expression in Jacob's blessing of 
his sons; (4) the lofty position predicted for Israel in Numb. 24:17. 
one of the oracles of Balaam. 

§ 88. Constructive Study. — Upon the basis of § 87 prepare a state- 
ment which will connect J's teaching concerning sin and deliverance with 
the needs of the times of 800 to 850 B. C, remembering that never 
before in Israel's history had the sinful character of the nation been 
more strongly pronounced, and also that, if ever in the nation's history 
deliverance was needed, this was such a time. In this statement 
include (1) a definition of sin as it seems to have been understood in 
these days; (2) a catalogue of acts which are regarded as sinful; (3) 
a definition, also, of the word "deliverance," with reasons for using 
this term rather than the more technical word "salvation ;" (4) specific 
instances of national deliverance between 800 and 900 B. C, with 
specific instances, likewise, of what might be called the very opposite 
of deliverance. 



90 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

§ 89. The Ethical Standards of J are closely related to 
the writer's doctrine of sin ($ 87); but some phases of the 
subject deserve, perhaps, independent study. 

1. Consider (1) the frankness with which J represents 
Gen. 12:10 ff. the shortcomings of the patriarchs; e. g., (a) the decep- 
26:6-14. tion practiced by Abraham ; (b) the similar deception 
27:19 f.; 30:34- practiced by Isaac; (e) the crookedness of Jacob's policy; 

38a ; 41 f. j 16: 

4ff. (d) the polygamy of Abraham and Jacob; (2) the 

30:4^. " simplicity, and, in fact, seeming unconcern, with which 

certain immoral transactions are described ; e. g., (a) the 

19:30-38. incest of Lot with his own daughters; (b) the immoral 

38:1-26. conduct of Judah ; (c) the treacherous and cruel treat- 

34:19,26,296-31. ment of the men of Shechem by the sons of Jacob; (d) 

9:20! the drunkenness of Noah; (3) the foundation on which 

the distinction between right and wrong is based; (a) is 

it law, or the personal relation to Jehovah ? (b) in what 

respect and why are Abraham and Noah, for example, 

standards, by comparison with whom others are tested ? 

(c) what other great types of moral rectitude are put 

forward ? (d) in what sense were Adam and Eve, Pharaoh 

and Esau types of an opposite character ? (e) what, after 

all, was the complete duty of man according to J ? 

2. Study the relation of the foregoing facts to J's 
times : (1) How far is the representation here given a 
reflection of the higher standards of the period ? In 
how far does J hold up ideals which have thus far never 
been realized ? (2) What, briefly, were the national 
shortcomings between 800 and 900 B. C? What were, 
perhaps, the most striking individual vices of this period ? 
(5) How definite in J is Elijah's conception of righteous- 
ness on the part of rulers ? (4) To what extent does J 
really adopt the ethical code of the Decalogue ? (5) 
Does the lex talionis, or law of revenge, appear to have 
prevailed in these times? (6) State in a few words J's 
ethical message to his times. 

§ 90. Attitude toward Worship. — 
Gen. 8:20; 12:8; 1. Prepare a statement which will present J's attitude 

4:3t;'Exod. 34: toward the prevailing method of worship, including (1) 
35:14.'' the use of altars; (2) the conception of the offering, a 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF THE EARLY HISTORIES 9 1 

present of fruit or from the flock; (i) its cleanness or Gen. 8:20; Exod. 

r ' vo/ 34:25, 266; Gen. 

uncleanness; (4) the use of fire; («%) the necessity of 8:20; Exod. 10: 

' v ^ y ' VJ/ J 25; Gen. 12:8; 

having a priest; (6) the use of the oracle; (7) reference Exod. 19:22 132: 

° r ' x ' ' v ' =25-29; Gen. 24: 

to sacred trees, or wells, or stones; (8) the significance 12-14:25:22!; 

v ' ° Josh. 16:1; 17: 

of the large number of stones which are associated with m- 17; Gen. 12: 

& 6 ff. ; 13:18; 16: 

sanctuaries; (o) the emphasis placed on the Passover; 13 f.; 21:33; 35: 

w/ r r 7 14, 20; Josh. 4: 

(10) the large ritualistic element in the J edition of the 3-8; Exod.i2:3- 

ID j CHeip. 34* 

Book of the Covenant. 

2. Compare this with the observance of the cult in 
J's times, and determine (1) whether J is in any sense 
under Canaanitish or Baalistic influence; does he possess 
Elijah's point of view? (2) Is he hostile to the high- 
places ? (3) What ideals, if any, does he present for 
adoption ? (4) Formulate his message on this subject 
in a proposition of fifty words. 

§91. The Outside World and Israel as a Nation. — 

What are J's representations on this subject ? 

1. Consider the influence on Israel's own thought 
concerning herself of (1) the study of the deliverance Exod. 7:16, 170, 

18, 21a ; 8:1—4, 

from Egypt, an event marking Israel s birth as a nation; 8-150, 20-9:7; 
(2) the idea which is now entertained of Israel's special Gen. 12:3; 18:18; 

28:14 ; 49:10. 

mission to the world; (3) the assurance given, doubtless 27:29a. 
many times, that she is to occupy a place of political 
supremacy. 

2. Observe, further, that, in general, J's point of view 
of Israel's world-relations is large and broad, as is shown 

(1) by the world-stories which were collected and made Gen. chaps, i-n. 

an introduction to Israel's history; (2) by the very chap. 34; 49:5-7. 
neighborly relations which the patriarchs are represented 

as sustaining to those about them; (3) by the attitude 2:i6ff.; Numb. 

22 :7 J 24 :i j 25 : 

toward the religious institutions of other nations which iff-; Josh. 5: 

. 9(?). 

from time to time appears. 

3. Note (1) that, while no allusion has yet been made Exod. 19:5, 6; 

x 7 J Numb. 14:21. 

which points to the actual separation of Israel from the 

world at large, other nations are represented as serving 

Israel, and likewise Israel's god Jehovah {cf. the later 

specific statements of a different character); (2) that Gen. 25:23: 19:30- 

Israel's superiority is clearly indicated in J's stories of 25; i6:«. 

the origin of (a) Moab and Amnion, (b) Esau,, {c) Canaan, 

{d) various Arab tribes; (3) that apparently no difficulty Gen. 41:45a; 

Exod. 2:21. 



92 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

is seen in the fact that Joseph marries an Egyptian; 

Gen. 12:3; 18:18; Moses, a Midianite; (4) that definite promises of land 

28:14. 
18:19. and national life are made to the patriarchs from time to 

time, while the necessity is clearly seen of training the 

nation for its work; (5) the Messianic import involved 

in these assurances. 

§ 92. Constructive Study. — In view of the extreme importance which 
must have attached to J's conceptions on this question of Israel's 
relation to the nations, prepare a statement, based on § 91, which will 
show (1) the importance of a definite policy at this particular time in 
Israel's history; (2) what we may suppose to have been the essence of 
J's position on this question. It is of special interest to inquire (a) 
whether the idea of isolation has yet prevailed to any extent; (b) the 
wisdom of the policy, from a pedagogical point of view, of bringing 
Israel into touch with the other nations; (c) the falsity of the view 
which treats Israel even from Abraham's times as "cut off" from the 
world; {d) the influence of the prophets in convincing Israel of her 
world-mission. 

§ 93. The Relation Sustained to J by Later Prophets 
and by J to later prophets is of importance in determin- 
ing with exactitude J's own position. Consider — 

1. The ideas of J already mentioned, which were 
taken up and developed by later prophecy, e. g., (1) the 
conception of Jehovah (§ 86) as faithful, merciful, just, 
hating sin, all-powerful, and ever-present among his 
people, all of which attributes are dwelt upon by Amos, 
Hosea, and Isaiah; (2) the conception of sin (§ 88) as 
essentially a product of the will of man, and the large 
place given to pointing out the evil effects of sin; is not 
this characteristic of all genuine prophecy ? (3) the germ 
of the Messianic hope (§ 87,4) which became later so large 
an element in prophetic thought; and (4) the conception 
of Israel's mission to the world in general (§91, 1). 

2. Specific allusions to the traditions and utterances 
of J found in the prophecies of Amos and Hosea, e. g., 

Am. 2:10; 9:7; ( x ) citations of the Exodus and wilderness wanderings as 

Hos. 12:9; 13:4. v ' ° 

proofs of the wonderful power and goodness of Jehovah; 

Am. 5:25; Hos. 9: (2) other references to incidents and customs of the 

Am.' 4: 11; Hos. wilderness period; (3) references to the overthrow of the 
n:8. 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF THE EARLY HISTORIES 93 

cities of the plain; (4) the attitude of J toward the ancient Am ;3:i4;4:4;5: 

5 1. : 8:i4) Hos, 

sanctuaries, in contrast with that of Amos and Hosea as 4:15; 6:8f.; 10: 

15; 12:4, 11. 

seen in their allusions to Bethel, Beersheba, Shechem, 
Gilead; (5) the two conflicting estimates of Jacob repre- Hos., chap. 12. 
sented in Hos., chap. 12, and their relation to J's atti- 
tude toward the patriarch; (6) the thought that Jehovah Am. 3:2; cf. Gen. 
had known Israel as expressed by Amos, and the similar 
representation in J that Jehovah had known Abraham for 

a special purpose; (7) the conception that Israel's attitude Hos. 4:6, 10; 9:1; 
r v ' r cf. Numb. 11:20. 

toward Jehovah constituted a rejection of him as their God, 

so prominent in Amos and Hosea, is already present in J. 

On the teachings of J see especially: Carpenter and Har- 
ford-Battersby, The Hexaieuch, Vol. I, pp. 98-104; Addis, The 
Documents of the Hexaieuch, Vol. I, pp. lii-liv; Kent, The Begin- 
nings of Hebrew History (1904), pp. 31-34; Driver, Introduction to 
the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 119 f.; McFadyen, 
The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly Historians, pp. 76-83 ; 
Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis (1901); Briggs, Higher Criticism 
of the Hexateuch, pp. 146-54; W. R. Harper, articles in Hebraica 
for 1888-91; Idem, Amos and Hosea (1905), pp. lxix-lxxix ; H. P. 
Smith, Old Testament History, pp. 210 f.; Duff, Old Testament 
Theology, Vol. II, pp. 279-318. 

Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 111-13, 130-38; 
Idem, Genesis erkldrt (" Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testa- 
ment "), pp. xvi, xvii ; Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des 
Alten Testamentes, § 30 ; Baentsch, Exodus- Leviticus- Numeri 
("Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament"), pp. xvi-xx. 

§ 94. Understanding that the Prophetic Narrative E 
had its origin in Northern Israel between 800 and 750 
B. C, we are to ask ourselves the same question that was 
suggested concerning J (§ 85): What was his message? 
It will be noted, at the very outset, that, since J and E 
are both prophets or prophetic schools, and live about the 
same time, great similarity will be expected in their 
teachings. In the study of E emphasis may be placed 
on points in which he differs from J. The fact that one 
wrote primarily for Southern Israel, the other for North- 
ern Israel, will explain many of the points in respect to 
which differences are found. The following passages 
may be regarded as representative of E. 

1. Abraham's deception of Abimelech with reference Gen. 20:1-17. 
to Sarah. 

2. The expulsion of Hagar and her son from Abra- 21:8-21. 
ham's family. 



94 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

22:1-19- 3. The proposed sacrifice of Isaac. 

31:19-24,26,28-30 4. The flight of Jacob from Laban, with the theft of 

32-42,51—32:1. 

Laban s gods. 

35:1-5,65-8. 5. Jacob's journey to Bethel where he builds an altar. 

40:1—41:40. 6. Joseph's experiences in prison and his interpreta- 

tion of Pharaoh's dream. 

42 2ib^27 2 ?~ 3 5o:il- 7- Joseph's treatment of his brethren in Egypt. 

Exod. 2:1-10. 8- The birth of Moses and his adoption by Pharaoh's 

daughter. 

17:8-16. 9. Israel's victory over Amalek. 

18:12-27. 10. Jethro's advice to Moses concerning the adminis- 

tration of justice. 

Numb. 11:16,24ft- 11. The story of the seventy elders. 

30. 
Deut. 33:1-25. 12. The blessing of Moses. 

§ 95. E's Distinctive Work may be grouped very sum- 
marily along the lines already indicated for J. These 
include — 

1. A strongly marked prophetic character, which is 
Gen. 20:7. seen in (1) the representation of Abraham as a prophet; 
Deut. 34:10-12. ( 2 ) the ascribing of Elohim's spirit to Joseph; (3) the 

lifting of Moses to the highest possible position in 
Exod. 15:20; prophecy; (4) the representation of Miriam as a prophet- 
ess, and of Balaam as a prophet, although a non-Israelite; 
Numb. 11:16,246- (5) the continuation of the divine direction through the 
josh. 1:1. seventy elders; (6) the characterization of Joshua as the 

Gen. 15:5546:3. minister of Moses and as the servant of Jehovah; (7)j:he 
presentation (although rare) of predictions concerning 
Israel's greatness, including forecasts of the future by 
27:39!; 48:20. Isaac and Jacob; and, still further, (8) the hero-stories 
20:1-17; 22:1-13; which are intended to serve as ideals for the Israel of 

31 14— 16 ; etc. 

the writer's own day, and, as such, to be regarded as his 
anticipations, in fact his predictions, of Israel's future 
josh., chap. 24. glory; (9) the general representation of theocratic guid- 
ance and control which prevails. 

2. A conception of God characterized by several strik- 
ing facts; viz.: (1) the recognition of three different 
stages of growth, including (a) the situation of Israel's 
early ancestors, when polytheism and idolatry were in 

josh. 24:2. vogue; (6) the religion of Abraham, and especially that 

of Jacob, who has seen the angels of Elohim and imme- 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF THE EARLY HISTORIES 95 

diately introduces a reformation in his clientage by bury- 
ing the strange gods under the oak at Shechem; (c) this Gen. 35:2-4. 
is followed by the later revelation of Jehovah ; (2) the use Exod. 3:15. 
of "Elohim" as the word for the Deity, until "Jehovah" Gen. 13: 17-19; 18: 

12 ; Exod. 20:1, 

is revealed, and its continuation afterward side by side 19 ff.; Gen. ax: 

" 17 " 28 1 12 * *KL * II * 

with "Jehovah" and in certain special phrases; (3) the Exod.'i4:'i9. 

frequent allusion to angels; (4) the frequent use of the Gen. 20:3, 6; 28: 

dream as a means of revelation, especially in the story 42:9. 

of Joseph; (5) the very significant use of the plural of Gen. 20:13; 31:53. 

the verb when employed as a predicate to the word for 

God — Elohim; (6) the fact that the representations of 

the Deity are generally less crude than those of J, and 

partake far less of the anthropomorphic character; (7) Gen. 31:42,53:28: 

r r v ' 22; Exod. 33:9; 

the use of the phrase "fear of Isaac;" the sacred stone; josh. 24:27. 
the pillar at the door of the tent speaking; the stone of 
witness; (8) the peculiar representation of the Deity Gen. 22:1. 
as "trying" his people; (9) the custom of treating josh. 6:20; Exod. 
important events as the result of the direct action of the 
Deity, and not as having come about through the inter- 
position of human effort; (10) the use by the Deity of Gen. 50:29; 45:58. 
men to accomplish his plans, although they may be 
ignorant of them or hostile to them. 

3. Other characteristic teachings may, perhaps, be 
grouped together, the more important being (1) a desire c/. Gen., chaps. 16 
to shield the reputation of the patriarchs by relieving 
them of the responsibility in certain transactions, thus 

showing a keener ethical sense than T exhibited; (2) a Gen. 28:22; 8:20a; 
J » \ / 13:18; Josh. 9: 

definite recognition of the patriarchal cultus, including 27; Exod. 33:7- 

the tent of meeting (which was placed under the charge 16-30. 

of Joshua, rather than Aaron and his sons), altars, pillars, 

but no priests; (3) a lack of interest in the outside world, Gen - 20:1-17; ax: 

and in the connection of Israel's history with that world, 

but an- attitude toward neighboring nations altogether 

friendly; (4) points of contact with Amos and Hosea; 

tf'> e - g-> ( a ) tne widely differing conceptions of Israel's 

future in E and Amos; (&) the contrast between the Hos.4:i3f.;8:nf. 

attitude of E and that of the prophets toward the high- 

places and ancient sanctuaries of Canaan; (c) Hosea's H £ s -. 9:IO; c • 

" ' \ / Numb. 25:3a. 

reference to the sin of Israel in joining themselves 

unto Baal-peor; (</) Amos's allusion to the great stature Am u ^ 9 9 \| ; cft 



g6 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

of the Amorites; (e) the high ethical standards of Hosea 
and Amos as related to the corresponding standards of 
A ?7- S Hos 2 r8ff 3 ' ^' (/) tne at ti tu de of E toward the surrounding nations, 
8:8 - and that of Amos and Hosea toward them. 

§ 96. Constructive Study. — Formulate, on the basis of § 95, the special 
points to be noted in E's message to his times, including (1) that which 
is new in E as compared with J; (2) that which is different in E as 
compared with J; (3) that which is lacking in E as compared with J. 

On the teachings of E see: Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hex- 
ateuch, Vol. I, pp. 1 10-20 ; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament 
(6th ed.), pp. 118 f.; Addis, The Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. liv, lv ; Kent, 
The Beginnings of Hebrew History, pp. 34 f.; McFadyen, The Messages of the Pro- 
phetic and Priestly Historians, pp. 76-83; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, 
pp. 146-54; W. R. Harper, articles in Hebraica for 1888-91; Idem, Amos and 
Hosea, pp. lxxix-lxxxiv ; H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, pp. 219 f.; Duff, Old 
Testament Theology, Vol. II, pp. 457-89. 

Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 197-212, Idem, Genesis erkldrt 
("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament") pp. xviii, xix; Baudissin, 
Minleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes, § 30 ; Baentsch, Exodus-Levilicus- 
Numeri (" Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament "), pp. xxviii-xxxii. 

§ 97. The Early Laws of the Israelitish nation 5 found 
in three main groups — viz., the Decalogue, the larger 
and smaller books of the Covenant — stand related to 
the prophecy of this period in three ways : (1) they are 
codified in this period — a step which involved general 
and, indeed, official acceptance; (2) they are appropriated 
and made a part of the prophetic history of JE — a step 
which signifies their indorsement by these prophets; (3) 
they serve as the legal basis for the prophetic utterance 
until the year 621 B. C. They may rightly be regarded 
as representing prophetic thought. Accordingly, the 
following study is suggested with a view to determining 
the character of the prophetic message which was con- 
veyed through these codes to the people of the ninth 
and tenth centuries B. C. 

1. An examination of the principal passages relating 
Exod. ao:aff., 7; to God, and a formulation of the results; viz., (a) the 

20*17 25ff, I 34 • 

i4ii7,23«. idea of Jehovah's jealousy — what is meant by this term ? 

(b) the prohibition of improper use of the divine name — 
what is involved here ? {c) the thought of God as bestow- 
ing the blessings of crops and herds; (d) the thought of 
God as Israel's God. 
*Cf. Priestly Element in the Old Testament (3d ed., 1905), §§20, 169; pp. 24 ff., 
115 f. 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF THE EARLY HISTORIES gj 

2. Similar treatment of passages in which allusion is «>:4ff.,7, 8ff. f 23; 

r ° 22 : 10— 20,28 ; 23 : 

made to actions or conduct which may be termed trans- ^' ff 24, 32; 34: 

gressions against God, e.g., idolatry, polytheism, improper 

use of the divine name, sorcery, blasphemy, uncleanness. 

2. Similar treatment of passages in which allusion is 20:8^,24-26; 22: 
<j r ° 29-31; 23:14-17 

made to worship, dealing, e. g., with the sabbath, the i8f.; 34:18-26. 
altar, offerings of first-fruits, sacrifices, clean and unclean, 
the feasts. 

4. A classification of the laws involving the relation («) Exod. 20:13; 

^ ° 21 : 12-14, i8f., 

of man to man in various activities of life, together with 22-25, 28-32 ; (&) 

20:15:21 : 16 ; 22: 

a statement of the fundamental principles which seem to *-4, 71, 10:13; 

A r (c) 21:2-11, 20, 

underlie these enactments, e. g., those relating to (a) per- 26 f.; (d) 20:12; 

o \ / x- 21:15, 17; (e) 20: 

sonal injuries and loss of life; (b) theft and violation of m; 21:33-36; 

22:5, 6, 9, i6f.; 

trust: (V) the rights of slaves; (d) filial reverence; (e) if) 22:141,25- 

,v/ ° J \ / ' v 7 27; (g) 20 : 16; 

damage to property; (/) loans; (g) testimony; (h) the 23:1-3; (fc) 22: 
exercise of kindness; (*) bribery; (/) covetousness. «; (*) 23:6-8; 

5. A study of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah, with 
a view to ascertaining, in the case of each prophet, the 
extent to which these codes, or their individual enact- 
ments, are recognized by them and indorsed. 

§ 98. Constructive Study on the Early Judean Narratives in Judges, 
Samuel, and Kings. — Take up these narratives (see § 58), for consider- 
ation in the same way as the foregoing materials, and endeavor to 
formulate (1) the writer's point of view as seen in his choice of 
materials and in his version of the story; (2) the purpose of the writer 
as revealed in his presentation of his materials; (3) the prophetic ele- 
ment in his narrative; (4) the teachings on the great themes of 
prophecy, viz., God, sin, Israel's future, righteousness, and deliverance; 
(5) the points of agreement and difference in comparison with the 
method and ideas of the J narrative in the Hexateuch. What con- 
ception of Israel's history prevails in these narratives ? What national 
ideals are here presented ? 

§ 99. Constructive Study on the Early Ephraimitish Narratives of 
Judges, Samuel, and Kings. — In the same general way, consider these 
narratives (see § 58, 3-6) and compare them with the foregoing Judean 
material on the various points at issue, noting (a) the points of agree- 
ment and (b) those of variation ; and formulate the teaching of these 
writers with reference to the times and circumstances which they were 
striving to influence. How far is the teaching determined and influ- 
enced by the environment amid which it found utterance ? What out- 
look for Israel is here presented ? 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS. 

§ ioo. The Personal Life of Amos. — Since many points 
of peculiar interest in the work of Amos turn upon his 
personal life, and especially on the location of his home, 
it is important to consider — 

i. The evidence found for supposing that he lived in 

1:1. Judah : (a) the statement of the superscription that his 

home was in Tekoa, which is known to have been located 
about ten miles south of Jerusalem and five south of 

7:12. Bethlehem; (3) the command of Amaziah to flee to Judah, 

which implies that Judah was the home of Amos; (c) the 
unsympathetic attitude of Amos toward Israel, which is 
more natural in an outsider than in a native citizen. In 
contrast with which may be noted — 

2. The suggestions offered in opposition to the loca- 
tion of his home in Judah, for example, (a) his entire 
occupation with Northern Israel; (b) the too great eleva- 
tion of Tekoa for sycamore culture; (c) his lack of 
interest in Judah; (d) the suggestion that his home was in 
Northern Israel, and that he went to Judah only after being 
expelled from Bethel. In this same connection — 

3. It is worth while to consider the location of Tekoa, 
and (a) the likelihood of its producing a character like 
that of Amos; (3) its contiguity to the lines of travel 

Cf. 2 Chron. u:6, taken by the Arab caravans; likewise (V) its proximity to 
Jerusalem, and (d) its relation to the wilderness, and the 
significance of a matter like this in the creation of 
character. 

§101. The Date and Circumstances of Amos's Career.— 

These are of vital concern in any effort to understand 
his prophetic work. Note the almost unanimously 
accepted date of 765-750 B. C, and consider the support 
found for this view (a) in the superscription; (3) in the 
statements of a personal character contained in chap. 7, 
6:14. as in harmony with the times of Jeroboam II.; (c) in 

98 



2 Sam. 14:2. 



1:1. 

7:10, ii, 17. 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS 99 

the statement of the boundaries of Israel which agree a Kings 14:25. 
with its extent in the reign of Jeroboam II.; (d) the con- 
fidence of the people politically in view of the pre- 
occupation of the kings of Assyria (Shalmanezer, 783- 
773 B. C, and Ashurdan, 772-755 B. C), whose time 
was taken chiefly with conspiracy at home and wars 
in other parts of the empire; likewise (e) the general 
religious situation, one marked by keen interest in the 
religious cultus of the times because the people in this s»4; 4:4,5; 5:31- 
time of political prosperity seek to acknowledge their 
appreciation of the divine favor accorded them, as well 
as because of anxiety aroused by earthquake and pesti- 
lence. It is to be noticed (/) that the social situation is 2: ^'\ 3 ;*°: I ?\ n _ 

XJ ' 15, 4:i, 5:7>io- 

one of wealth and luxury, debauchery and oppression, g? 4 f :I ' 3_6 '' 
fraud and robbery. It may not be uninteresting (g) to 4:10; 8:9; 1:1. 
observe that the land had within recent years been visited 
by pestilence as well as by a solar eclipse (about 763 
B. C.) and by an earthquake. 

§102. The Occupation of Amos. — Closely associated 

with the question of Amos's home and time of work is 

that of his occupation. Here it is necessary to study (a) 7:14; c f. m. 

the prophet's own statement, with its implications. Does 

he disdain to be reckoned as one of the regular prophets 

of the times? If so, why? Is his work different in 

purpose or in spirit? Is he a closer observer than those 

who have preceded him ? Does he exhibit evidence of 

greater philosophical insight ? Is he more inclined to 

recognize general law ? Is he, in fact, almost as truly a 

sage as a prophet ? (b) What was the nature of his 

occupation as a dresser of sycamores, and what was 

implied in this? Was he poor, or was he financially 

independent? (c) Was he also a shepherd? In what 

way is the occupation of a shepherd consistent with 

that of a dresser of sycamores ? Was he perhaps a 

wool-gatherer ? Was this a higher occupation than that 

of a shepherd ? Did it involve journeys in which he 

might meet men from different parts of the world ? (d) 

Do we find evidence of his rustic life in the language of 2:13; 3:4 f-,«; 

& 4:1 1; 5:", 17 

Amos ? May we attribute to the loneliness of his occupa- *9« 6:ia - 

tion the lack in his message of anything that may be 

LOFC. 



100 



PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



1:3, 6, 13-, 2:1, 9- 
12; 4:6-11. 



8:8; 9:7. 



2:11; 3:7- 

2:3, 6, 13; 2:1, 6, 
116; 3:10, 11, 12; 
4:5-"' 5:30, 16, 
17,27; 6:86, 146; 
7:1-9; 8:if ; 
9:1. 



7:14- 



7:i-7. 



Jsa., chap. 6. 



Amos, 2: 11 f.; 

3:7. 
Numb., chaps. 23, 

24. 

Ho sea 8:12. 



Judg., chap. 5; 
Gen., chap. 49. 



called tenderness or love ? Was it in this shepherd life 
that he learned to observe facts and causes ? 

§ 103. The Preparation and Call of Amos. — This brings 
us to the question of his call and preparation, (a) Do 
we find in his writings evidence of a lack of intellectual 
preparation and ability; or, on the other hand, is he a 
master in the use of the Hebrew language ? Has he a 
large knowledge of history and society ? Does he seem 
to have seen things with his own eyes? Is he an 
ethnologist as well as a historian, a geographer as well as 
a sociologist ? Is his conception of God and of ethical 
philosophy high or low ? Is he credited with working 
miracles ? (b) Did he really entertain contempt for the 
prophetic societies of his times ? If so, how are we to 
explain the respect shown for prophets ? In what 
respects did he resemble Elijah ? Did he himself make 
use of the technique of prophetism ? Did he, after all, 
stand alone ? Or was he not closely preceded by J and E, 
and just as closely followed by Hosea ? How, then, are we 
to explain his apparent desire not to be reckoned as one 
of the prophets ? (c) Aside from the discipline which 
he secured in the desert and in the progress of travels 
which were undertaken in connection with his occupa- 
tion, what are the facts in reference to the development 
of culture in eastern society? (d) Is it possible to 
suppose that Amos's call, like those of Isaiah and 
Jeremiah, came in visions, namely, those of the fire, 
locusts, and plummet ? Does the fact that these visions 
are recorded in the seventh chapter oppose this sugges- 
tion ? Compare the place of Isaiah's call in the narra- 
tive. (<?) Consider what may be called the antecedents 
of Amos's thought as they are found in connection 
with (1) the prophets whom he cites; (2) Elijah and 
Elisha; (3) the many disconnected fragments of pro- 
phetic utterances found in J and E ; (4) the prophet 
of Isa., chaps. 15, 16; (5) the priestly literature which 
had already taken form ; (6) the prophetic diction which 
Amos employs and which implies long usage ; (7) the 
great poetical pieces which had come down from ancient 
times, like Deborah's song, etc. 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS 101 

§ 104. The Character of Amos. — Consider now the 
character of Amos in so far as it can be gathered from 
the facts at our command, and discover the evidence, if 
such exists, for regarding him as (a) bold and courageous; 7:10-17. 
(ft) accurate in observation and scientific in habits of 3:4-6. 
mind; (c) nomadic in his instincts; (d) austere and 6:4-7. 
uncompromising ; (e) the nature of his spirituality as 
distinguished from that of Isaiah. 

§ 105. The Message of Amos — This, after all, is the 
most important topic. Consider (1) the reasons for the 
opinion that the message of Amos is the most important 
of any conveyed by an Old Testament writer, and (2) 
the two or three factors which are disclosed in a general 
analysis of this message, namely, (a) a profound convic- 
tion on certain subjects relating to God and to human 
life; {b) a knowledge of certain facts in national and 
international history; (c) a conclusion which grows out 
of putting together the conviction and the knowledge 
of the situation; (3) the importance of distinguishing c/. §66. 
the words actually uttered by Amos from the insertions 
and additions that come from the pen of later prophets, 
in all nearly one-fifth of the entire book. 

§ 106. The Popular Religion. — It is necessary to 
formulate the state of feeling and opinion of the people 
against which the prophet arraigns himself. This popu- 
lar opinion, it will be remembered, represents also that 
of the royal order, the priests, and a vast majority of the 4:1; 6:1; 7:101 
prophets. Consider now the consensus of thought which 
he opposes, the old theology in comparison with which 
his theology is new. 

1. To what extent was the people's conception of 
Jehovah that of a nature-God, one among other gods, 
the Deity of Palestine? 

2. To what extent was their conception of Jehovah 3:2; 9:7. 
that of a national God — a God, therefore, who would be 
satisfied if Israel would limit herself to his worship; a 

God who could not get along without his nation Israel 
any more than Israel could get along without her God ? 
To what extent did the people interpret the period of 5:16-24. 
peace and prosperity which they were enjoying as a 



102 



PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Judg. 11:24. 



definite indication of Jehovah's pleasure and satisfac- 
tion ? 

3. Did the people believe that Jehovah was virtually 
5:14; cf. Mic.3:n. bound to protect their political interests without reference 

to their moral conduct? Must he sooner or later, with- 
out reference to wright or wrong, identify himself with 
his people ? Was it a matter in which he had no option? 
In other words, was his relation to them one which did 
not involve an ethical basis ? Was their belief in Jehovah 
non-moral, that is, natural ? 

4. What, according to the opinion of the people, was 
Jehovah's attitude toward other nations ? Was it to 
fight against them on behalf of his own people ? And 
if they were conquered, did it exhibit on his part a lack 
of strength ? Did these other nations have gods, and 
was it understood that the gods of the other nations were 
stronger than Israel's God when Israel was in subjection, 
but that Israel's God was stronger than other gods when 
Israel was victorious ? Had Israel's God shown his 
power against Egypt and in Canaan, and more recently 
against Syria ? Did his relationship with these nations 
cease when peace was declared ? Did Israel belong 
wholly to Jehovah ? Was Jehovah wholly Israel's ? 

5. How, in the opinion of the people, was Jehovah's 
favor to be secured and his anger averted ? Was there 
any other method than by following out the ceremonial 
or cultus, including its festivals and sacrifices ? Were 
these indispensable? Were they likewise wholly satis- 
factory ? Could they give him nothing else than gifts, 
pilgrimages, and praises ? Did Jehovah ask nothing 
more ? Would the increasing costliness of these require- 
ments develop injustice and inhumanity ? 

6. Did the people then understand that moral 

Exod., chaps. 20- requirements were ignored by Jehovah in case they were 
23; 34:10-26. 

faithful to the routine of the ceremonial ? Can it be 

said that they were entirely ignorant of moral duties in 

view of the existence of the Covenant Code and the 

Decalogue ? In any case, did they not seem to have the 

belief that morality was an unnecessary factor in religion ? 

Was this not a fundamental conception in early Semitic 

religion ? 



Amos 2:9!; 3:1; 
2 Kings 13:25; 
14:25- 



Amos 3:1, 2. 



3:14; 4:4 f.; ! 
21-26; 8:10 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS 103 

7. Did the people think about Assyria ? Did they 
fear her? Why should they, in view of the fact that Amos 6:13. 
Jehovah had only recently shown his great strength ? 
Could they doubt his ability, and, besides, were not 
Egypt and Syria equally interested with Israel and Judah 
against Assyria ? Was it possible that one nation could 
overpower four ? Then, too, were not the Assyrians 
occupied for the most part with distant wars and internal 
conspiracies ? Had Assyria always been victorious ? 
Did not fear of Assyria imply lack of faith in Jehovah ? 
Why should they exhibit this lack of faith at a time 2 Kings 14:25. 
when he had given such definite evidence of his favor? 

§ 107. The Teachings of Amos. — What, now, were the 
convictions of Amos ? To what extent is his thought in 
direct antagonism with the current thought of his times ? 
To what extent is it positive rather than negative, and 
thus the statement or restatement of eternal truth ? 
Were there some popular beliefs altogether wrong which 
he did not possess ? 

1. Consider Amos's conception of Jehovah, and 5:14,27. 
remember in this connection the full significance of the 
title, "Jehovah, God of Hosts," as well as the favorite 4:13. 
expression of Amos, "Lord Jehovah," occurring perhaps 3:7,11; 4:2, 5; 
nineteen times. In what way did. Amos represent 
Jehovah as All Sovereign and Omnipotent ? In connec- 4:6-"; 8:8; 9:2- 
tion with nature ? In connection with history ? What 
has Jehovah's relation been to the Syrians, the Philistines, 
Israel herself? Does his power reach to heaven and to 9:2. 
Sheol ? But is this power of Jehovah ever said to be 
universal ? Did other nations ascribe to their gods the 
same power? Does Jehovah have intercourse with any 
nation other than Israel ? Is there evidence, in other 
words, that Amos in his conception of Jehovah repre- 
sented pure monotheism ? Does he anywhere deny 
the existence of other gods ? In any case, does not 
Amos ascribe to Jehovah unlimited power ? But, in this 
case, what relationship did these other gods sustain to 
Jehovah? If Jehovah, for example, brought the Philis- 9:7. 
tines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir, did he do 
this with or without the permission of the gods of those 



104 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

nations ? Does not Amos clearly imply that other gods 
6:I 4 are inferior and subject to Jehovah ? They only carry 

out Jehovah's will. Jehovah, then, is a God who has 
defeated the gods of Egypt, of Philistia, and of Canaan. 
He has overthrown the Phoenician Baal and the Syrians. 
Can we see the relationship of Amos's thought to 
7=3.6,7. that of the past? Did Amos make use of anthropo- 

morphisms ? In what way are these to be explained ? 
Did Amos pass by image-worship ? Had objection 
been made to image-worship ? What was the restriction 
in Exod. 34: 17 ? Had use been made of images — for 
Cf. Hos. 3:4. example, the ephod and the teraphim ? Is there any 

objection to the interpretation of 2 : 4 as representing 
Amos's views on this point, or 8:14? Is there any 
evidence that Amos approved image-worship ? 

2. Is Jehovah ever called God of Israel in Amos ? Is 
Jehovah nevertheless represented as sustaining a peculiar 

Amos 3:2. relation to Israel? Is this relationship indissoluble, or 

is it clearly conditioned ? (a) Does he give any reason 
why Israel was selected by Jehovah rather than some 
other nation ? With unlimited power could he not have 

9:7. taken any nation ? (b) What special responsibilities rest 

upon Israel in view of the selection that has been made ? 

5:6. (c) Is Jehovah interested in the outside world simply for 

Israel's sake, or is he interested particularly in Israel for 
the world's sake ? Is Israel really anything more to him 
than are the Cushites ? On what condition alone is 

5:4. Israel's future safe ? Does the prophet actually expect 

the people to adopt his view of the matter ? 

3. To what extent does the conception of Jehovah as 
5:7-15.24- a God of justice control the thought of Amos? Had 

this idea of God been expressed by Elijah in the Naboth 

1 Kings 21:18 ff. episode? (a) Does Amos go farther than did Elijah? 

Was he enabled to do this because he conceived of 

Jehovah as standing in close relation to all nations ? 

Must Jehovah be impartial, and consequently ethical, 

because his power is universal ? What is it to be a national 

c/. Mic. 3:11. God, if not to show favor to Israel ? Can he do this and 

be ethical ? Must a God to be ethical be a world-God ? 

Amos 1:3-8, 13- (b) But if righteousness is an essential element in Jehovah's 
15; 2:1-3. 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS 105 

character, must he not demand it of those who are his 

followers ? Can he have one standard for the world at 

large and a lower standard for Israel ? If Israel has 

enjoyed special privileges, must she not be judged by a 

higher standard ? (e) But does Amos express any clear 3:2. 

or adequate conception of sin ? Does he show any great 

purpose on the part of Jehovah in the working out of 

this idea of righteousness ? 

4. If Jehovah has unlimited power, is he not able to 

control the world ? Does this not include Assyria as 6:14. 

well as Egypt ? Will Jehovah demand righteousness of 

the world-nations? Why is punishment announced for Chaps. 1 and 2. 

Syria, Philistia, Moab, and Ammon ? Was it because 

they had not treated properly his nation Israel ? Was it 

because of idolatry on their part, or was it rather because 

of the violation of some dictate of universal morality, 

some principle of the natural laws of humanity and 

mercy? 1 

k. Does Tehovah really care for the observance of 5:25; 5:21-23; 3: 
J J 14; 5:5; 7:9; 

the ceremonial ? Is he pleased with Israel s pilgrim- 8:I °; 9:1-4. 

ages ? Does he enjoy their feasts and songs ? Is 
he not actually ready to destroy their places of wor- 
ship, and to put an end even to worship as a whole ? 
What, now, does Amos really mean ? Is he denouncing 
to the people sacrifice itself, or is he trying to change 
the belief of the people that sacrifice duly performed 
will satisfy the mind of Jehovah? Does he teach that 
the ritual of itself cannot meet the demands of an ethical 
Deity ? Could he have opposed sacrifice itself without 
opposing the only method yet known to humanity of 
coming into communion with the Deity? Does he really 
wish them to give up the ritual ? 

6. If something beyond the ritual is demanded, what 5:7-15,24. 
is it? Does it grow out of Jehovah's ethical character, 
and is it in fact an ethical demand ? Is it a demand for 
justice, and what does justice include except honesty, 
integrity, purity, and humanity? Did Amos present his 
demand in the abstract or in the concrete form ? And 
does he, after all, ask anything that has not been recog- 

1 W. Robertson Smith, Prophets of Israel (2d ed.), p. 134. 



106 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

nized as necessary by all nations who have attained 

2:7 L; 4:1; 5:"; governmental organization ? Is any more asked of Israel 
than of other nations ? Is it obedience to mere legal 
justice that is called for, or rather consideration of the 

5:4, 6. poor and weak — that is, moral justice ? Is any statement 

of reward or punishment associated with the demand ? 

3:6. In the language of the prophet's demand and in the 

universality of its character, does he not himself resemble 
the sage ? 

5-.i8ff. 7. What position, now, is maintained by Amos con- 

cerning Israel's future, and what is his conception of the 
day of Jehovah ? Is Israel to suffer punishment ? Will 

6:71,14; 7:8 f., this punishment mean utter destruction? How impor- 
tant a place does this thought have in the message as a 
whole ? Had anyone before Amos proposed the utter 
destruction of the nation? Was the overthrow con- 

5.14 L templated in any sense political? Is the sentence a 

possibly revocable one ? Is it at all clear that Amos saw 
a brighter picture in case of repentance ? Review here 
the considerations for and against assigning 9 : 8^-15 to 
a later date. Is it possible that Amos, being from Judah, 
expected the true religion to be continued and developed 
by Judah after Israel had perished ? What were the 
essential points of difference between Amos's conception 
of the day of Jehovah and that of the people of his 
times ? 2 

§ 108. The Antecedents of Amos. — The relation of 
Amos to those that preceded him is a subject which 
furnishes many interesting questions for study. To 
what extent was Amos a creator of the Israelitish ethical 
monotheism; or to what extent is the essential content 
of Amos's teaching rooted in the past? 

1. Consider the importance of this question in the 
study of the progress of the Old Testament develop- 
ment, and especially in determining the place of prophecy 
in that development. Was he, perhaps, instead of Moses, 
the founder of the religion ? If, in general, Old Testa- 
ment history, like other histories, is an evolution, is the 

2 See J. M. P. Smith, "The Day of Yahweh," American Journal of Theology, 
Vol. V (1901), pp. 505 ff. 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS 107 

movement which found expression through Amos, Hosea, 
and Isaiah exceptional in that it had no antecedents? 
Is the fact that Amos makes no appeal to something 
earlier than his own work — for example, a code of laws 
— evidence that his work was not the fruitage of the 
past? 

2. Is the morality which he demands something new c/., e.g., the Book 

J ° of the Dead, 

or of long standing? Were not demands for this same and the Code of 

° flammurahi. 

justice, including honesty, humanity, etc., made in the 1:3. 6, 13; 2:1. 
earliest days of history ? Did they not form the basis of 
his condemnation of other nations ? Is anything more 
asked of Israel than of them ? Does Amos in his pres- 
entation of these demands assume that Israel is ignorant 
of these things; or is aware of them, and negligent of 
them, and therefore deserving the punishment? Is it 
possible to explain the representation of Amos as an 
anachronism; or as a piece of beautiful rhetoric ? Could 
Israel be punished justly for failing to observe con- 
ditions or demands of which they were totally ignorant ? 
Could Amos, living in such close proximity to Jerusalem, 
have been ignorant of the past history of the nation, its 
literature, and its laws as handed down by tradition ? 

3. To what extent does Amos show a knowledge of 1:3, 6, 13; 2:9-12; 

3:1; 4:6-11; 
Israel's past history ? How far did Israel's history rest 5:25; 6:5; 9:7. 

on the character of Jehovah as shown in history? To 

what extent is Amos making use of the terminology of 

prophecy as fixed by his predecessors ? 

4. Does he concretely express appreciation for pre- 2:11,12. 
ceding prophets? Who were these ? Would the num- 
ber include Elijah and Elisha, J and E? 

5. Is it quite certain that Amos knew such written Exod., chaps. 34, 

20; Deut., chap. 

documents as the Decalogue and the Book of the Cove- 5; Exod., chaps. 

21-23. 
nant ? May we suppose that, in addition to these works, 

others were familiar to him? (a) Were there national Judg., chap. 5; 

v ' Exod., chap. 15; 

songs which prepared the way technically as well as Gen., chap. 49. 

spiritually for his work? {b) Would these include the 

Song of Deborah, the Song of the Red Sea in its earliest 

form, the blessing of Jacob, as well as Deut., chaps. 32 

and 33? (c) And would there be, in addition, proverbs Gen. 4:23 f.; 25: 

23; Judg. 9:7-20. 

and folk-lore, some of which had already been incorpo- 



108 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Numb. 21 .- 27-30. rated in J and E, and some of it perhaps preserved in 
the canonical Book of Proverbs? Does Amos himself 

Amos 9:4. show a familiarity in his own address with the folk-lore, 

and with the speech and thought of the common people ? 

§ 109. The Ministry of Amos, that is, the external 
form of Amos's work. What was its scope ? In what 
did it consist ? 

1 Kings, chap. 13. 1. Is it possible that the story of the man of Judah is 

a distorted account of Amos's ministry ? 3 Or is it worth 
while to consider the suggestion that the story of his 

Amos 7:14. ministry, together with that of Jonah, is a later invention 

or fiction ? 4 What is a natural inference to be drawn 
from (a) the fact that no miracle or wonder-story is con- 
nected with his work; (3) no ecstatic frenzy is suggested; 

7: c/~ 9 isa :I chap : 6- anc ^ W ^e em P nat i c statement made in answer to 
jer. ini-19. Amaziah ? Did he use music, as did Elisha, to pro- 
duce ecstatic trance ? Did he have visions ? Are these 
to be compared with those of Isaiah and Jeremiah ? 
What relation did the visions of Amos sustain to those 
of the past and those of the future ? Does he in receiv- 
ing his message follow the method of those who pre- 
ceded him ? In his own method of presentation does 
he show progress ? 

2. What significance lies in the fact that Amos was 
the first of the prophets to write down his sermons ? 
(a) How far was this due to the fact that Israel is now for 
the first time enjoying the privileges of civilization, and 
therefore literature? To what extent was opportunity 
for this afforded in the long and peaceful reign of 
Jeroboam ? To what extent is he merely following the 
fashion already set by the priests, and the prophets of J 
and E ? (b) If Israel's religion in the prophet's mind 
stood for something more than ritual — in other words, 
for ideas which could not be expressed in an institution 
— was writing a necessity ? Is it true that prophetic 
utterance has now become something of permanent 
value ? Has the prophet himself assumed new functions 
and new responsibilities ? 

3 So Wellhausen. 

* So Day and Chapin, " Is the Book of Amos Post-Exilic?" American Journal 
of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVIII (1902), pp. 65-93. 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS IO9 

3. What was the nature of the influence exerted by 
the earlier prophets in comparison with that of the later 
prophets ? How far did the earlier work wield " an 
instantaneous influence"? Is the prophet henceforth to 
be leader of the masses ? Is his work outwardly to be a 
failure ? Is he compelled to put his words in writing 
because of his ill success in reaching their hearts ? 

4. How could permanent interest be secured without 
an opportunity to read and study the prophetic stories ? 
Could there be a continuous development without this ? 
Would it be necessary for the prophet to write out his 
words just as he had spoken them ? Was it necessary 
that the prophet himself put his speeches into written 
form ? May this have been done by a band of disciples ? 
What motive could have existed in the mind of Amos 
for writing down his addresses, if he expected the end 
of Israel to come within his own generation ? 

§110. The Political Activity of Amos. — This deserves 
consideration, especially in the variation which it pre- 
sents from the older types. 

1. Is this a difference in fact or in method ? Was the x Kin £ s j8:i7fl.-, 

19:15-18; 21: 

prophet's influence in national life less than was that of 37 ff.-, a Kings 
Elijah and Elisha ? Was he an official of the govern- 
ment ? Did he sustain a special relation to the king ? 
Was he more than a private citizen ? Did he establish 
any organization ? Did he adopt any other method than 
that of preaching ? 

2. Consider the skill with which Amos announced Chaps. 1 and 2. 
his political views concerning the nations. What are the 

features of the method adopted, and what may be 
regarded as the chief motive ? 

3. Consider the political insight exhibited in his 
interpretation of Assyria's relation to Israel. 

§111. The Stages in the Ministry of Amos. — Con- 
sider the question of the chronological order of the 
stages in Amos's ministry. 

1. Did he, may we suppose, while in Tekoa, make 
visits at home and abroad, and in such visits would he 
learn the methods and work of the prophets ? Might 
he in this way secure information concerning the world 
at large in these early years ? 



110 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

7:1-9. 2. May he, in visions like those of the locust and fire, 

have received his call to preach; and, in a vision like 
that of the plumb-line, the message which he was to 
preach, namely, the irrevocable destruction of Israel ? 

5:4,6,14; 7:2 f., Did he perhaps at first believe that the doom might be 
averted ? But is he gradually convinced that there is no 
hope unless something extraordinary happens ? Does 
he then go to Northern Israel, amazed that all do not 
see as he sees? 

chaps. 1 and 2. 3. Did he introduce his work, may we suppose, by a 

proclamation in diplomatic form of one oracle after 
another concerning Israel's neighbors ? Were these 
uttered on successive days, or did they extend perhaps 
over months ? Does he in time announce to Israel the 

2:6-16. future ruin, and does he, going from place to place, 

finally reach the climax of his work at Bethel when 
utterance is given to the words contained in chap. 6 ? 

7:1-9. 4. Is it possible to assume that at this point he is 

interrupted, and that a demand is made for his authority, 
and that in justification of his words, he tells the story 
of his call as it came in the visions of the locust, fire, 
and plumb-line, closing with the definite announcement 
of Jerusalem's end ? 

7:10-17. 5. May we understand that this is followed by the 

attack of Amaziah ? Does he give up his prophetic work 
immediately, or does he continue in spite of the priest's 
interference? Is it possible to suppose that the inter- 
ference was a friendly one; or, on the other hand, was 
Amos strong enough to defy the king's command and 
remain permanently? Is it more reasonable to suppose 
that he continued to preach until he had finished his 
message ? 

isa., 8:i6ff. 6. Does the prophet then go back to Judah and 

gather about him a small band of disciples, to whom, as 
in the case of Isaiah with his disciples, he turns over his 
sermons and his visions ? 

§ 112. The Efficiency of the Ministry of Amos. — 

1. To what extent is there a lack of the religious 

element ? Could his ministry have reached many minds ? 

Did he himself clearly recognize the issue involved in 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS III 

his preaching ? Did he have a purpose, or is he like a 
sage advocating a new philosophy without reference to 
its consequences ? 

2. To what extent may his ministry be explained 
upon the supposition that it contained an infusion of 
the new spirit, namely, that of philosophical inquiry and 
the acceptance of law? In what sense does his work 
furnish the basis for future prophecy ? 

§ 113. Literature on Amos. — 

On the teachings of Amos see especially : the commentaries of W. R. Harper 
(1905), G. A. Smith, Driver, Mitchell, Orelli, Wellhausen, Gunning, 
Nowack, and Marti; and also Cheyne, art. "Amos," Encyclopedia Biblica; 
Taylor, art. "Amos," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Driver, art. "Amos," 
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed.); W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel (2d ed.), 
pp. 120-43 ; Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 37-46 ; Kirkpatrick, Doctrine of the 
Prophets, pp. 83-108; H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, pp. 211-18; McCurdy, 
History, Prophecy, and the Monuments, §§302-4, 937-41; Budde, Religion of Israel 
to the Exile, pp. 133 ff.; Davidson, "The Prophet Amos," Expositor, Vol. V (1887), 
pp. 161-73; Mitchell, "The Idea of God in Amos," Journal of Biblical Litera- 
ture, Dec, 1887, pp. 33-42; Paton, "Did Amos Approve the Calf-Worship at 
Bethel?" ibid., Vol. XIII (1894), pp. 80-91. 

Duhm, Theologie der Propheten, pp. 109-26; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestament- 
lichen Religions geschichte (2d ed., pp. 179-86); Lohr, Untersuchungen zum Buch 
Amos, pp. 28-36; Meinhold, Studien zur israelitischen Religionsgeschichte, Vol.1, 
pp. 31-63 ; PROCKSCH, Die Geschichtsbetrachtung bei Amos, Hosea und Jesaia, pp. 2-12 ; 
Seesemann, Israel und Juda bei Amos und Hosea, pp. 1-17 ; Tesch, Setzt der Prophet 
Amos autoritatives Gesetz voraus? Giesebrecht, Die Geschichtlichkeit des Sinai- 
bundes, pp. 19 ff.; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (3d ed.), pp. 180 ff; 
G. Rothstein, "Amos und seine Stellung innerhalb des israelitischen Prophetismus," 
Theologische Studien und Kritiken, April, 1905 ; Franckh, Die Prophetie in der Zeit 
vor Amos [Beitrage zur Forderung Christlicher Theologie, IX (1905), pp. 27-86]. 

§ 114. Constructive Study. — Consider each of the sections 101-112 
as furnishing the basis for a constructive study in which the various 
points suggested in the questions asked shall be treated. The formu- 
lation of the subject may thus be presented in the form either of 
propositions or of a more general discussion. In each there will of 
course be incorporated the results of a study of the Scripture material 
cited, and of the reading pursued in the list of literature suggested. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA. 

§115. The Personal Life of Hosea. — In the history 
of no prophet is there a closer connection between the 
message and the personal life than in the case of Hosea. 
And since Hosea's work was performed among his own 
people rather than in another country (cf. Amos), it is 
especially instructive to consider — 

1. His place of residence. In this connection one may 
iChron. 5:6. pass over the views (a) that Hosea was of the tribe of 

Reuben (compare his father's name Beeri with the name 

H sV ilphfjl- 5, B eeran )> and (#) that Hosea, like Amos, went up from Judah 

11:12, etc. t0 T srae i — a view based upon the frequent reference to 

Judah in the book. But would these passages, even if all 

*:*• authentic, prove the place of the prophet's work ? Is this 

view supported by anything which may be found in the 
superscription or by the prophet's apparent attitude of 
leniency toward Judah in contrast with Israel ? Is there 
any evidence that the book was written out in Judah after 
Hosea had left Israel ? In favor of Northern Israel as 
his home take up the following questions: Does the lan- 
guage of the book indicate anything ? Is there any evi- 

7:5; 6:10; 1 .2. dence to be found in such expressions as "the land," "our 
king," etc.? Does he show any special interest in Northern 
Israel, its historical conditions and foreign relations, and 

4:15; 5:1,8; 6:8,9; its political parties ? Are the places with which he shows 

7:1; 8:5,6;g:i5; f f f 

10:5,7,9,15; familiarity in the north or in the south — for example, 
Mizpah, Tabor, Samaria, Gilead, Shechem, Gilgal, Bethel, 
Gibeah, Ramah ? Does he speak from the point of view of 
a visitor or a resident ? How important is this question of 
his citizenship in the Northern kingdom? 

2. The suggestions offered as to the meaning of the 
word " Hosea." Is it a combined word made up of 
"Jehovah" and the root "to save" (</. Joshua), or simply 
a word meaning "deliverance"? Is there anything sig- 
nificant in the name ? 

112 



12 :ii. 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA I 1 3 

§116. The Date and Circumstances of Hosea's Life 
and Work. — Are these indicated in the superscription? 1:1. 
Is this superscription from Hosea's hand or from a later 
date ? In what respect may Hosea's life and work be 
compared with those of Jeremiah ? 

1. Consider now the data which determine the begin- 
ning of his work and its duration. What date is implied 

in view of the threat concerning Jezreel? Would his 1:4. 

marriage and the birth of his oldest son have preceded? 

Is evidence to be found that he preached in the midst of n ''\.Jf^ 7:3ff "> 

the anarchy which followed the death of Jeroboam II. ? 

Does the book contain any allusion to the Syro-Ephraim- 

itish war? If not, what indication does this give of 

date? Is Gilead in Hosea's times a part of Northern 

Israel? But was not Gilead with Naphtali conquered 5:1; 6:8; 12:11. 

by Assyria in 734 B. C. ? What then are the dates within 

which he must have preached ? 

2. Consider the historical events of the period indicated 2 Kings, chap. 15. 
above and their consistency with the times described by 

Hosea; for example, is there evidence in the early part of 
the book of prosperity and wealth? On the other hand, Hos. 2:51, gff. 
does the situation change later? Is lawlessness prevalent? 4:2; 5:1; 7:1. 
Is the political situation one of peril ? Are the leaders 5: J|"! X 7:II; 8:8; 
themselves guilty? Are revolution and anarchy prev- 4:8; 5:1; 9:15. 
alent? How does Hosea's description of the times 5:13; 7:"; 10:6; 
differ from that of Amos? Which of the two saw more 
widely? Which more deeply? 

3. Concerning Hosea's occupation and social stand- 
ing, it may be asked whether he was one of the so-called 
prophets, or was he, like Amos, neither prophet nor the 

son of a prophet? May we infer from a familiarity 4:4,6-9,6:9. 
which he shows with the evil practices of the priests that 
he himself was a priest? Is there anything opposing 
this view ? Is there evidence of any kind to indicate 
whether he occupied a high social position or the 
opposite ? 

§117. Hosea's Call and Preparation. — This subject 
is perhaps the most important of all that will present 
themselves in a study of the Book of Hosea. The diffi- 
culty and the delicacy of the subject are apparent, but a 



114 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

careful examination of the material, and the various views 
that have been presented concerning it, will give a clear 
insight into Hosea's character and the significance of his 
personal experience as determining the nature of his 
message. 

1:2-9. 1. Make a thorough study of the narrative which 

describes the harlotry of Hosea's wife, and in connection 
with this the narrative of the purchase of Gomer as a 

3:1-4. slave and her retention many days, and prepare a brief 

statement of the thought contained in these two pas- 
sages, keeping in mind that, whatever view may be taken 
of the authenticity of the remaining verses of the first 
three chapters, these passages contain the actual narra- 
tive concerning Hosea and his wife. 

2. Consider whether this transaction is to be regarded 
as (a) a vision or trance, something that never actually 
happened in real life ; or (b) as a parable or allegory. 
Could a prophet have done the thing here described ? 
Is the woman of 3 : 1 the same as in chap. 1 ? And did 
Hosea have two marriages of the same kind ? Did the 
prophets sometimes represent themselves as commanded 

Ezek. 4:1-8, 9-17. to do strange things? Could Hosea psychologically 
have received such a command? Or (c) is the trans- 
action to be understood literally? Does the prophet 
indicate in any way that it was a vision? Is the thing 
commanded less objectionable in a vision than in actual 

isa. 7:3; 8:1-4. practice? Was it the custom of prophets to give sym- 
bolical names to real children ? Is a real experience 
of this kind consistent with the message which Hosea 
preached ? But {d), if it is taken literally, are we to under- 
stand that Gomer was a harlot when Hosea married her ? 
Or is it possible (e) that spiritual fornication is meant, 
since Gomer was, like other Israelites, an idolatress ? 

Hos. 1:2. Or may we understand (/) that the phrase " a wife of 

whoredom " may mean one who, although chaste at the 
time of marriage, had in her a tendency to impurity 
which manifested itself after marriage ? Does this view 
cover the facts of the narrative ? Does it remove the moral 
difficulties ? Does it furnish a reasonable basis for 
Hosea's love for his wife ? Will it furnish explanation 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA 1 1 5 

of the mental process through which Hosea came to 
realize Jehovah's love for Israel ? 

3. Trace the connection between the symbolical 
names given to the children and the progress of the thought 
in Hosea's mind, and at the same time take up the close 
connection between chap. 3 and chap. 1. Is the old 
relationship of wife re-established? In what position is 3:1-4 
the wife placed at the close? Is the period of seclusion 3:4. 
— namely, "many days" — a definite period? 

4. Consider the following questions : If we restrict 
the narrative to 1:2-9 and 3: 1-4, is the conclusion of 
the story furnished ? Is there any inconsistency between 
the representation made of a love so strong that it 
leads the husband to do strange things, and the usual 
Israelitish custom in accordance with which the wife was Exod. 22:16 f. 
the property of the husband? How long a period must 

these transactions have covered ? What was Hosea's 
domestic situation during these years ? 

5. Consider these additional points : Might a call to 
prophecy come through a personal experience as well as 
in a vision ? Was the chief teaching of these domestic 
experiences the announcement of Israel's destruction, or 
the announcement of Jehovah's love for Israel in spite of 
faithlessness? If Gomer was a harlot at the time of 
marriage, why was she called "wife of whoredom" Hos. 1:2. 
rather than harlot ? Is this command of Jehovah to 
marry such a woman to be compared with Scripture 
representations concerning the hardening of Pharaoh's Exod. 10:1. 
heart and the command to Isaiah, and were these really isa. 6:91 
commands? Could these experiences have been used in 
communicating to the people the thought which the 
experience itself brought to the prophet? 

6. Is it to be understood that the prophet in writing 
out the story of his experiences at a later time introduced 

into the story much of his later history. Did Isaiah do isa., chap. 6. 
this in the story of his call, and Jeremiah likewise? jer.,chap. 1. 
May we understand, then, that there first came the experi- 
ence, after that the recognition of the truth which it 
suggested, and still later the writing out of the experi- 
ence in the light of this truth? Is there anything 
analogous to this in Amos? 



Il6 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

7. To what extent did the old Semitic conception, 
that the national deity was the husband of the land, 
afford a basis for Hosea's interpretation of his experi- 
ence ? Supposing this to be the basis, what new thought 
does he introduce ? 
§ 118. The Character of Hosea. — Consider the facts and the material 
of the book, and picture to yourself the character of the author, Hosea. 

1. In what respects did Hosea's strength differ from that of Amos ? 

2. In what respects was his character complex, as compared with the 
simplicity of the character of Amos ? 

3. Compare closely the character of Jeremiah with that of Hosea, 
and indicate the points of resemblance? 

4. Does any other personality in Old Testament history exhibit so 
affectionate a character ? 

5. Was Hosea strongly ethical or rather strongly religious? Cf. 
Amos. 

6. Was Hosea, because of his emotional character and the com- 
plexity of his temperament, illogical ? 

7. To what extent did Hosea represent the national type ? 

§ 1 19. The Message of Hosea. — Consider in general the importance 
of the message and the facts which contribute to it a special interest. 

1. Is the message a strongly personal one, and is this personal ele- 
ment so pervasive as to give it a prominence over and above the politi- 
cal and religious factors ? 

2. Is there a remarkable relationship between the message of Hosea 
and that of Amos, both being required to secure a complete conception? 

3. Is there any significance in the fact that this message is given 
within a few years of the end of the Northern kingdom ? 

4. Is it true that nearly one-fourth of the verses contained in the 
Book of Hosea are to be regarded as insertions and additions from the 
point of view of later prophets, and will this affect somewhat the formu- 
lation of Hosea's message ? 

5. Consider whether the general thought of Hosea may be connected 
with the following topics, and formulate a proposition presenting his 
thought concerning each of the subjects named: (a) Israel's character 
and condition; (b) Israel's future; (c) Jehovah's relation to Israel; (d) 
Israel's conception of Jehovah; (e) Israel's acts of repentance; (/) the 
outcome of Israel's present attitude toward Jehovah. 

6. Consider what Amos had said that did not need to be said over 
again by Hosea, and also what Amos had not said which Hosea must 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA I 1 7 

now say. For example, did Amos present any plan for a restoration ? 
Did Amos lay emphasis upon Jehovah's love, or upon universal law ? 
If the latter, what was the next problem to be solved ? Was it necessary 
for Hosea to promise redemption, or would it be sufficient if he would 
show that redemption was possible? 1 Had the popular feeling on 
fundamental questions changed, or was it practically the same as at the 
time of Hosea's utterances ? 

§ 1 20. The Convictions of Hosea. — Recognizing the 
fact that Hosea, when compared with Amos, deals dif- 
ferently with the same questions, the one being deeper, 
while the other is broader; the one being strongly reli- 
gious, the other strictly ethical; consider the more 
important points upon which expression is made: 

1. The omnipotence of Jehovah. Is this idea as 
important in Hosea's scheme of thought as it was in that 

of Amos ? How does Hosea represent Jehovah's power Hos. 2:8; 4:3; 9:2; 
over nature, and in what way does he describe the power 
of Jehovah in history? Is he interested in Jehovah's "-1,3,4; 12:9,10; 
work outside of Israel? 

2. Was Hosea more truly monotheistic than Amos ? 

Is Jehovah represented as a national God? Is Hosea's 3:4 '> 9:3 > I3:4 - 

representation of Jehovah anthropomorphic? Is the 6: |: X | :X4 ' I3:7; 

manner of his representation of Jehovah influenced by ^-JJ.J 4 ^"' 12:I4; 
his own poetic nature ? 

3. How are we to account for the fact that Hosea 8:5, 6; 3:1; 13:2. 
attacks the image-worship of the times, which was passed 

over in silence by Elijah, Elisha, and Amos ? Why 
should Hosea have taken this position rather than Amos ? 

4. Prove that Hosea's fundamental idea of Jehovah is 6:7. 
that of a God of love. What, in detail, is the significance 

of the word "love" used of Jehovah by Hosea? What is 
involved in the exercise of this feeling on the part of 
both Jehovah and Israel ? What words or phrases may 
be used as synonyms to express the idea contained in the 
word translated " love" ? What, according to the prophet, 
is the relationship of this feeling to religion itself? 

5. From a study of the passages cited, formulate the ^fig^lT 6 ' 5:4; 
substance of Hosea's most bitter complaint against Israel. 

Explain what is the full meaning of the word "know" as 

1 Cf. George Adam Smith, Book of the Twelve Prophets, Vol. 1, p. 229. 



I 1 8 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

used in these passages. What knowledge of God is it 

that Hosea has here in mind? Something which the 

nation once possessed, but has lost, or is it something 

4:1 ff.; 6ff.; 5:1 ff. really new? Why is it that the people do not reach up 

2:8; 4:6. to this new knowledge ? And in what way is it possible 

for Israel to gain a true knowledge of Jehovah ? 
2:2; 3:1. 6. If Jehovah is the husband of Israel, or if he is the 

II :i. father of Israel, what relation does he sustain to outside 

nations? Is Hosea much concerned with the outside 
world ? What evidence is there that Jehovah occupies a 
place of superiority in the outside world ? Why was 
Hosea indifferent to the world at large ? 

4:131; 6:6-, 8:11- 7. Formulate a statement representing Hosea's mes- 

chap. 10,'passim. sage on the cultus, and compare with this the thought of 

Amos. Why is the Canaanitish worship distasteful to 

Hosea? Why is he opposed to calf- worship ? Does he 

give larger consideration to the cultus than does Amos ? 

4:8; 5:1; 10:13; 8. Prepare a statement expressing Hosea's concep- 

tion of the immorality of Israel in those days. What is 
the occasion of this general immorality ? Is it encour- 
aged by the priests ? Why ? What methods does Hosea 
adopt to bring about a reform in this particular? 

3:4-6. 9. Prepare a statement representing the political 

situation at home and abroad as represented by Hosea. 

In what respect has the home policy been wrong ? Does 

he condemn the disruption of the kingdom which took 

7:1-8; 8:4-13; place in the days of Rehoboam ? What is his attitude 
10:8 ff. r J 

toward the anarchy of his own time? What about the 
foreign policy ? Exactly what was it, and what was its 
weakness ? 

10. What was Hosea's interpretation of Israel's past 

history? What interpretation of this same history had 

been made before the days of Hosea, and what two great 

1:4; 5:13; 7:3-7, interpretations follow? Formulate in some detail Hosea's 

13 ff.; 9:14*, 11: r 

1; 12:3,91 point of view and the great religious lesson which he 
based upon it. 

1:10— 2:1. 14-16, 11. If 14:1-8 comes from a later hand, compare also 

18-23; 3:5; xx : . 

10 f - other suspected passages with Hosea's representation 

concerning Israel's immediate future. Present in con- 
trast his conception of the future on the supposition that 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA II9 

these passages come from his pen. What considerations 
now may be urged in this connection against the authen- 
ticity of the passages cited? In any case, is not Hosea's 
conception of Jehovah one which furnishes a basis for a 2:2; 5:4; 6:6; 10: 
hopeful future? Did he teach the possibility of repent- 13:14- 
ance? Did he expect Israel to repent? 

12. Consider two additional points in reference to 
Hosea's message : (a) To what extent did he make use 
of the nation's past history, and where did he get his 
material? Is it possible that he may have made use of c/. 8:12; 9:10; 
oral tradition? Did he have information which no pre- c/. 8:13; 9:3, 10; 

10:9; 11: i, 5; 

ceding document still in existence furnished? Did he 13:4 1. 
exercise a judgment concerning the past, differing from c/. 1:4; 10:5. 
that of those who preceded him? (&) In what sense now 
may the character of Hosea's message be said to be typi- 
cally Israelitish? Was his message a true expression of 
the national spirit? In what respects may the message 
of Hosea be contrasted with that of Amos? 

§ 121. The Ministry of Hosea. — What is the external form of his 
work? What was its scope? In what did it consist? Remembering 
that the ministry of Hosea was that of a poet, not a philosopher; that 
of a mystic, not a moralist — consider the following topics: 

1. In the reception of his call to preach and the message which he 
was to preach, what method was definitely employed ? Through how 
many years did this experience continue? What was the nature of the 
experience? How may we in a practical way explain the reception of 
the message by the prophet ? 

2. In the presentation of his message to the people, what methods 
were employed ? Was the use of symbolical names for children a good 
method? May we suppose that he made a public statement of the 
story of his discourse, and, if so, for what purpose ? 

3. Did he preach? What was the important purpose of his dis- 
course ? How many of these discourses have been preserved ? What 
may be said as to the character of these discourses from the point of 
view of public delivery ? 

4. Did he follow the example of Amos in committing his addresses 
to writing? 

5. How may we contrast the ministry of Hosea with that of Amos 
in its relation to political activity? Did Hosea occupy any public 
position ? Did he come into contact, so far as we know, with the 



120 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

government ? Was it, in other words, a private rather than a public 
ministry? Were the political conditions of his times peculiarly diffi- 
cult? Was he more severe toward the prophetic policy of the past than 
toward that of his own times ? 

§ 122. Stages in the Ministry of Hosea. 

i. Criticise in detail the following hypothesis concerning the 
chronological order of the various stages in his ministry: 2 

a) At the time of his marriage (750 B. C. ?) he was presumably a young 
man, and, if his occupation was that of a priest, his mind had been dwelling 
on sacred things for many years. At first hand he gained his knowledge of 
the evil practices of his fellow-priests, and their close associates, the prophets. 

b) Within two or three years (747 B. C.) he had satisfied himself as to the 
doom of Jehu's dynasty; this was announced in connection with the birth of 
his son (Jezreel). He, doubtless, expected Israel's collapse to be contempo- 
raneous. 

c) Within six or seven years the tragedy of his life has been enacted ; the 
real call to preach has come; the great message has been received; Jeroboam 
has died, and anarchy has set in; important announcements concerning the 
future have been made (in the symbolic names given the three children of 
his wife). 

d) During the next six or seven years (742-735 B. C), with his wife put 
away (for he cannot now live with her, however much he loves her), he 
preaches his impassioned sermons, breathing into them all the warmth and 
all the pain of an agonizing heart. These are the years of revolution and 
vacillation, of decay approaching close to death — -years without any hope, 
yet with a faith in Jehovah that is strong and steadfast. 

e) What next? We do not know. It is improbable that, like Amos, he 
left home and went to Judah, there to put his writings into form, and to include 
the Judaistic references which are in the present book. It is probable that he 
was spared the worst agony of all, that of seeing Samaria in ruins and Israel 
carried captive. We have nothing from his lips or pen later than 735 B. C. 

2. Present considerations which may be offered to prove the effi- 
ciency of Hosea's ministry. What is its real success, notwithstanding 
the failure of the prophet to turn people from their sins and to save 
the nation from destruction ? 

§ 123. Literature on Hosea. 

For presentations of the teachings of Hosea see: The introductions to the 
various Commentaries, especially those of Cheyne {Cambridge Bible), George Adam 
Smith {Expositor's Bible), Ewald, Wunsche, Valeton (Amos und Hosea), Nowack 
(Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament), Marti (Kurzer Hand-Kommentar zum 
Alien Testament), and W. R. Harper ("International Critical Commentary," 1905J. 

a See Amos and Hosea ("International Critical Commentary," 1905), pp. clvii f. 



THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA 121 

Special discussions are: A. B. Davidson, "The Prophet Hosea," Expositor, 
1st Series, Vol. IX (1879), pp. 241-64; W. R. Smith, art. "Hosea," Encyclopedia 
Britannica (1881); Idem, Prophets of Israel (1892, 2d ed., 1895), PP- I44~90; KiRK- 
patrick, Doctrine of the Prophets (1892, 3d ed., 1901), pp. 109-42; Idem, art. " Hosea," 
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible {2d ed., 1893); Cornill, Prophets of Israel (1894, 
English 1898), pp. 47-55; L. B. Paton, "Notes on Hosea's Marriage," Journal of 
Biblical Literature, Vol. XV (1896), pp. 9-18; A. B. Davidson, art. "Hosea," Has- 
tings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899); Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile 
(1899), pp. 45 ff\; W. R. Smith and Karl Marti, art. "Hosea," Encyclopedia 
Biblica, Vol. II (1901). 

Duhm, Die Theologie der Prophelen (1875), pp. 126-41; Lagrange, "La nou- 
velle histoire d'Israel et le prophete Ose'e," Revue Biblique, Vol. I (1892), pp. 203-38; 
Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (1893, 2 d ed., 1899), pp. 
204-18 ; Oettli, " Der Kultusbei Amos und Hosea," Greifswalder Studien (1895), PP- 
1-34; Volz, Die vorexilische Jahweprophetie und der Messias (1897), pp. 24-40; 
Seesemann, Israel und Juda bei Amos und Hosea, nebst einem Exkurs iiber Ho. 1-3 
(1898); Volz, "Die Ehegeschichte Hosea's," Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theo- 
logie, 1898, pp. 321-35; Procksch, Die Geschichtsbetrachtung bei Amos, Hosea und 
Jesaia (1901); Oettli, Amos und Hosea, zwei Zeugen gegen die Anwendung der 
Evolutionstheorie auf die Religion Israels (1 90 1); Nowack, "Die Zukunftshoffnungen 
Israels in der Assyrischen Zeit" in Theologische Abhandlungen (Festgabe fur H. J. 
Holtzmann, 1902), pp. 33-59; Riedel, Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen, Heft I 
(1902), pp. I-15; Boehmer, "Die Grundgedanken der Predigt Hosea's," Zeitschrift 
fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie, Vol. XLV (1902), pp. 1-24; Meinhold, Studien zur 
israelitischen Religionsgeschichte, I : Der heilige Rest (1903), pp. 64-88. 

§ 124. Constructive Study. — On the basis of the results reached 
through the foregoing study and in the light of the literature cited in 
§ 123, prepare a positive, constructive statement of the message of 
Hosea, giving special attention to (1) his call and preparation, (2) his 
relation to Amos, (3) his diagnosis of Israel's religious condition, and 
(4) his conception of God. 



Appendixes 



D. A Table of Important Dates. 

B. A Chronological Table of the Religious Life of Israel. 

C. The Prophetic Vocabulary. 

D. Analysis of the Hexateuch. 



APPENDIX A. 

TABLE OF IMPORTANT DATES. 



Israel. 


B. C. 


Other Countries. 


Hebrew clans in Canaan (Gen. 14). 


c . 2250 


Hammurabi, king of Babylon. 




c. 1700 


Hyksos enter and subdue Egypt. 


Jacob -clans enter Goshen. 








c. 1500 


Hyksos expelled from Egypt. 




c, 1400 


Tell-el-Amarna letters. 




c. 12Q3-1226 


Ramses II. (Pharaoh of the Oppression). 


Israel defeated in Canaan by Merneptah. 


c. 1226-1198 


Merneptah. 


Exodus of Jacob-clans from Goshen. 


c. 1198-1167 


Ramses III. 

Philistines enter Canaan. 


Jacob -clans enter Canaan. 


c. 1150 




Deborah and Barak (Judg. 5). 


c. 1 100 




Gideon. 






Abimelech. 






Jephthah. 






Eli. 






Philistine oppression. 






Samuel. 


c. 1040 




Saul. 


c. 1025 




David becomes king. 


C. IOOO 




Jerusalem captured and made the capital. 






Solomon. 


c. 970 




Temple completed. 


c. 960 




Disruption. 


933 




JUDAH. 


ISRAEL. 






Rehoboam. 


Jeroboam I. 


933 




Wars between Ju- 


dah and Israel. 






Shishak invades Ju- 


dah and Israel. 


929 


Shishak I, of Egypt. 


Abijam. 




916 




Wars between Ju- 


dah and Israel. 






Asa. 










Nadab. 


912 






War against Philistia. 




Philistia invaded by Israel. 




Baasha. 


911 




Wars between Ju- 


dah and Israel. 










900 


Rise of Damascus. 


Asa appeals to Da- 


mascus for aid against 


c. 890 


Ben-hadad of Damascus invades Israel. 




Israel. 




Northern campaigns of Tukulti-Ninib II. 




Baasha loses territory 








to Syria. 








Elah. 








War against Philistia. 




Philistia attacked by Elah of Israel. 




Zimri. 








Omri. 


885 






Civil war; factions led 




Ashurnasirpal III. ; northern campaigns, 885, 




by Omri and Tibni. 




884, 883, 880, 867 ; eastern campaigns, 882, 




Tibni slain. 




881 ; campaigns in west Mesopotamia, 884, 




Omri builds Samaria. 




879, 878-875 (?) ; reaches Mediterranean, 


Long peace between 


Judah and Israel. 




876 (?) 




Ahab. 


875 






Alliance with Phoeni- 




Phoenicia and Israel allied. 


Jehoshaphat. 


cia. 
Wars with Syria. 


872 


Wars between Syria and Israel. 






c. 860 


Mesha's revolt; Moabite stone. 






860-825 


Shalmaneser II.; constant war; campaigns 
in Babylonia, 852, 8 5I ; i n we st Mesopo- 
tamia, 859-856; in south Syria, 854, 849, 
846, 842, 839; in central Syria, 850, 843, 
841, 832; in north Syria and northwest, 
840, 838, 837, 835, 834; in north, 860, 855, 
853» 845, 833, 831-828; in east, 844, 836. 




First contact with 


854 






Assyria; battle of 








Karkar. 







125 



126 



PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



APPENDIX A— Continued. 



JUDAH. 



Jehoshaphat aids 



Jehoshaphat aids 

Jehoram. 

Revolt of Edom and 

Libnah. 
Ahaziah. 

Ahaziah aids Joram 
Ahaziah slain by 

Jehu. 
Athaliah. 
Joash. 
Joash gives tribute 

to Hazael of 

Syria. 



Amaziah. 

War against Edom. 

J ehoash smi tes 

Jerusalem. 
Uzziah. 



Total eclipse of sun 



Jotham. 



Ahaz 

Judah invaded by 

Ahaz sends tribute 
to Tiglath-pileser. 



Israel. 



Ahab against Syria. 

Ahaziah. 

Joram. 

Joram against Moab. 



War against Syria, 
against Syria. 
Joram slain by Jehu. 
Jehu tributary to 
Shalmaneser II. 

Hazael smites Gilead, 
Gad, Gath, etc. 



Jehoahaz. 

Syria's long oppres- 
sion of Israel. 



Jehoash. 

Victories over Syria. 



War with Amaziah. 



Jeroboam II. 
Syria expelled from 
Israel. 



B.C. 



on June 15, visible in 
Syria. 



Zechariah (6 months). 
Shallum (1 month). 
Menahem. 

Menahem sends 
tribute to Tiglath- 
pileser. 

Pekahiah. 

Pekah. 

Pekah and Rezin of 
Syria. 

Tiglath-pileser 
deports inhabitants 
of Gilead, Galilee, 
and Naphtali. 

Hoshea, an Assyrian 

Vassal. 
Hoshea rebels 

against Assyria. 

Siege of Samaria. 
Fall of Samaria. 



853 
850 

843 
842 



836 
c. 830 



827-822 

825-812 

814 



812-783 



c. 800 
797 

795 



'.785 
783 



783-773 



773-755 

763 
755-745 
745-727 



742 



739 
738 



736 
735 



734 

733 
73° 

727-725 

724-721 
721 



Other Countries. 



War between Syria and Israel. 

Moab attacked by Israel, Judah, and Edom. 
Edom and Libnah rebel against Judah. 
War between Syria and Israel. 



Hazael of Damascus smites Gilead, Gad, 
Gath, etc. 

Insurrection in Assyria. 

Shamshi-Adad IV. ; quells insurrection, 822 ; 
three campaigns in north ; six in Babylonia. 
Syria humiliates Israel. 



Adadnirari III. ; campaigns against Syria 
and reduction of Damascus, 806-803, 797 » 
eight campaigns against Medes; six cam- 
paigns in Northeast. 

Ethiopians subdue Upper Egypt. 

Syria defeated by Israel in days of Jehoash. 
War between Edom and Judah. 



Syria repulsed by Israel. 

Shalmaneser III. ; decline of Assyria and 
growth of kingdom of Urartu ; campaigns 
against Aramaeans in north Babylonia, 
against Urartu, and against Damascus 

(773)- . , , 

Ashurdan III. ; Assyria s decline continued ; 
campaigns in central Syria, 772, 765 ; in- 
surrection in Assyria, 763. 



Ashurnirari II. ; campaign against Arpad, 
754; downfall of dynasty in Assyria. 

Tiglath-pileser III.; revival of Assyria; 
campaigns against Aramaeans in Baby- 
lonia, 745 ; in East, 744, 737; in Syria, 
against Arpad, 743-740; against Hamath, 
738; against Damascus, Israel, and Phi- 
listia, 734-732; against Kaidi, 731, 729, 728. 



Damascus joins Israel against Judah. 



Kingdom of Damascus destroyed. 



Shalmaneser IV. ; campaign against Syria 
and Palestine, siege of Samaria (724-722). 



Sargon; acme of Assyrian power; expedition 
to the West, 722. 



APPENDIXES 



127 



APPENDIX B. 

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF ISRAEL. 



B. C. 



Prophetic Activity. 



Extra - Prophetic. 



c . 1040 



c. 960 



933 



875-850 



850-800 

850-750 
842 

836 
800-750 

783 



765-750 
745-735 

739 

734 

721 



Moses. 

The covenant at Sinai. 

Judges foster a spirit of patriotism and reli- 
gion. 

Deborah, and Judg., chap. 5. 

Divine will sought through Ephod, Teraphim, 
lot, etc. 

Seers. 



Nazirites. 
Patriarchal traditions. 



Samuel. 

Prophetic societies. 

Ban executed upon the Amalekites. 

Rejection of Saul by Samuel. 

Anointing of David by Samuel. 
Gad, the seer. 
Nathan, the prophet. 

Blessing of Jacob (Gen. 49). 
Nathan's parable (2 Sam. 12: 1-4). 
Oracles of Balaam (Numb. 23, 24). 
Song of the Exodus (Exod. 15, earliest form). 



Ahijah (1 Kings 11:29). 
Shemaiah (1 Kings ii-.iii.). 

Hero-stories in Judges. 

Nazirites. 

Nebhi'im. 



Elijah. 

Early world -stories. 
Judean Decalogue. 
Micaiah ben Imlah. 



Elisha. 

Early Saul and David stories. 

J 1 - 

Prophets support Jehu's revolution. 

Rise of Rechabites. 



Book of the Covenant. 

Elijah stories. 

Ei. 

Early narratives in Samuel and Kings, 

Elisha stories. 

Prophet Jonah (2 Kings 14: 25). 

J 2 . 

Isaiah 15 and 16 (?). 

Ephraimite Decalogue. 

Amos. 

Hosea. 

E*. 

Isaiah. 



Micah. 



Observance of old institutions; e.g., Sacri- 
fice, Circumcision, Clean and Unclean, 
Spring Feasts, Feasts of the Moon, Vows, 
Fasts, Sabbath, the Ark, the Tent of Meet- 
ing, Founding of the Sanctuary at Dan. 

Gradual assimilation of Canaanitish thought 
and customs. 

Beginnings of tendency to centralize priestly 
activity in tribe of Levi. 

Jotham's Fable (Judg. 9: 7 f.) 

Image-worship common. 

Necromancers ; witchcraft. 

Local sanctuaries at Ramah, Mizpah, Bethel, 
Gilgal, and elsewhere. 

Ark in sanctuary at Shiloh. 

Eli, and his sons. 

Annual feast at Shiloh. 

Ark captured by Philistines. 

Ark restored, and kept at Kiriath-jearim. 

Book of Jashar (Josh. 10 : 13 ; £ Sam. 1 : 18) . 
Book of the Wars of Jehovah (Numb. 21 : 

14 *•). 

Slaughter of the priests of Nob. 

Abiathar, the priest. 

David's lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 

Sam. 1 : 19-27.) 
David's lament over Abner (2 Sam. 3 : 33 ff.) . 

Building of the Temple. 
Ancient Songs ; e . g,, Lamech's Song (Gen. 
4:23^); Song of the Well (Numb. 21: 

17 f-). 
Early Proverbs; e. g., 1 Sam. 10: 11 f . : 24: 

13- 
Popular Riddles; e. g., Judg. 14:14-18; 15: 

16. 
Ancient Laws ; e. g., 1 Sam. 30: 24 f. 

Golden Calves. 
Development of temple ritual. 



State Annals. 
Tyrian Baalism. 



Gradual development of Hebrew civil and 
religious law, later codified in Deuteronomy 
and in the Holiness Code. 



Priests under Jehoiada overthrow Athaliah. 
Joash repairs the temple. 



Parable of Jehoash (2 Kings 14:9). 



Blessing of Moses (Deut. 33). 



Jotham repairs the temple. 
Ahaz introduces Assyrian elements into 
temple ritual. 



128 



PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



APPENDIX C. 



PROPHETIC VOCABULARY. 



The following list of words aims to include the more important 
terms used by the prophets to convey their distinctive ideas. It is not, 
therefore, an exhaustive vocabulary of the prophetic utterances, but 
confines itself to the favorite, or characteristic, words of the prophets. 
The list of Greek equivalents gives the most common renderings of 
the Septuagint translation of the prophets, without attempting to 
enumerate all the rare interpretations. Renderings based upon a mis- 
taken reading or a different text from that of the Massoretes are pur- 
posely omitted. 



ins 



" T 

nrr& 

ana 
nnn£ 

nfe 



ban 

nfel 

fife" 
n?pb» 

T VJ 

TO 



diroWOeiv, ii-oXedpetieiv, iic- 
Tptfieiv (Deut. 7:20), 
eKXeiireiv (Jer. 7:28) 
irtvrjs, irrcox^i Tairewds 
irevdetv, arevd £eiv (Isa. 19:8), 
dprjveiv (Ezra 7: 12) 

&V0pCOTTOS 

dyairdv, fftCKeiv 

ay&Trrjcris 

iwidvixeTv 

<rr)/ieiov 

dvofita, ddiKla, yoyyv<r/j.6s 
(Isa. 58:9), fidraios, fid- 
tt]v, j3Xdcr077 / uos(Isa. 66:3), 

irdfOS, AC07T0S, &T01TOS 



dpVS, T6p4plP$OS, tev8pOV L erebinth 

dacrij, yeveal (Isa. 61:3) 



perish, be exterminated 



poor, needy 
mourn, lament 

man, mankind 

love 

love 

desire 

sign 

trouble, wickedness 



J 



XVpa 

d\r]deia, wiffTLS, dXrjdris, 

d\r]6iv6$ 
aKrjdeta, dXrjdiPOS, irlcms, 

7r«rr6s, d£io7ri(rros 
X^eiv, direiv, ipeiv, \a\eiv 
6vfi6s, opyfj 

7f60OS, CKOTOS 

Xa/xfidveiv yvvaina, p.vr)cr- 

defieadai yvvaiKa 
ddeTeiv, KCLTacppoveiv, iyica- 

Takelireiv. davvdereiv 



widow 
faithfulness, truth 

faithfulness, steadfastness 

utter, say 

anger 

darkness, calamity 

betroth 

deceive, deal treacher- 
ously 



APPENDIXES 



129 



HT2 

T T 

TTS 

- T 

nna 

— T 

rraa 

nt22 

r* 

maa 



b?a 



"tfa 

t>pa 
ma 



(pavXlfap, d.Ti/idfeii', dri/xovv, 

i£ov5evovv, ££ovdevovv 
acvXetieip, diapirdfap, irpo- 

vo/JLeveiv, 8iaaKopirl£ei.p 
iicXtyeip, iiriXtyeip, alpeip, 

aiperi^etp, 8oKLp.d^€iv, irpo- 

aipeiv 
ireldeiv, iXirifap 
dprjvr), iXirls, ireLdeiP, d<r- 

(paXQs 
cvv€t6$, GvvleLV, cvviivai, 

(ppbvip.o% efpcu, Karavdeiv, 

€iri<7T7IIA(iJV 

Tra.pdpop.os, Xoip.6s, dcre/3^s, 

dvofiia, dp6p.rjp.a 
v\pr]\6v (u^tjXtJ) , j3a^td, d(3ap,d 

(Ezek. 20 : 29), |8w/a6s, 

CT-rfk-r), v\J/os (3ovv6s (Ps. 

78:58; I Kings 10:13), 

etSwXop (Ezek. 16: 16) 
/3adX, alffx^vrj (i Kings 

18:19, 25), effiwXov (Jer. 

9:14) 
£icKalei.p, iicKadaLpeiv, d<pavl- 

fav, ipirvpi^eip 
fyretp, iK^rjreiP 
8i.a0r)Kr), pLa.prijpt.op, ivroX'/j 



despise 
spoil, plunder 
choose 

trust 
security 

perceive 

worthlessness 
high-place 



Baal 



consume 

seek, enquire 
covenant 



*TlSa evayyeXlfradai 



rnga 

nb^ina 

>3 
b*w 

- T 

nbia 
rnba 

T 

nba 



at<TX" P7 l 

irapdtpos, ptip,<pr) 
virepT]<papia, <pptiayp.a, vfipcs, 

56£<x 
Xvrpovp, dyxio~T€\jet.p,p6eo-dai, 

drroXvTpovp, i£aipeip 
dTTOiiceaLa, diroiKla, fierct- 

neala, at'x/u,aXw<r/a 

cdpos, Xa6s 

dyaXXiaadai, x aL P^ v i e ^~ 
(ppaipeip 

diroKaXfiTTTeip, dpaKaXinrreip, 
viroKaChtiirTeiP^KKCLKinrTeip, 
dvolyeip, (papepovp, a.lx~ 
fiaXuTlfciv, alxpdXwTOP 
yepiadai, diroiKl^eip, dird- 
yeip, d<pL<TTapai 



preach, announce good 

news 
shame 
virgin 
majesty, pride 

redeem, act as kinsman 

exiles, exile 

nation, people 
rejoice 

uncover, go into exile 



130 



PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



D^Sl 



nra 



-m 



T T 

"111 



irm 



:ntnn 
mrnn 

''"ins ?[bn 



\tjyfxaTa, dia.vorjfJLa.Ta, £v- 
6vfif)fxaTa 
aireihelv, direiXr), airoo'KO- 
paKi^eiv, iiririnav, <rv\- 
\oi5ope?v 

0~VVT&<TO~€lV, VTTOTdffCTeiV, 4i>- 

WXXea'fleu, dvayytWecv, 
avWaXeiv, irpocrXaXeTv, 
ptet-v, eiTreiv, XaXeZV, \4yetv 

X670S, e7ros, pr)fia 

ddvaros, diKf) 

ykvea, ticyovov, <rvyy4veia 

Kpiveiv, diaicplv€t.v 

ao-devr)s, Trtvrjs, 7TTa?^6s, ra- 
ir€i.v6s 

yvCjats, €Trio~Trjp.ri, eiriyitoixris, 
fiovkr) (Isa. 44 : 25), ative- 
<m 

frjTeiv, iKfyrecp, iirL^rjTecv, 
irdfav (Deut. 13:15), 
diroKplveadai, irwddveadai 
(Gen. 25 : 22), tire pur dv, 
iirLGKiirTeadai. (Ezek. 
20 : 40), eTTLCKOireiv (Deut. 
11:12), iXwlpeiv (Isa. 
II: 10), xPV°'f JI - ^6y € <' v 
(Jer. 38:4) 

ipiorl^ea-Oai 

p-draios, paraLbrris, etftuikov, 
p.dTt\v, els ovdev (Isa. 

49:4) 
uxpekeiv, dxpfkeia, u}(pi\rj/j.a 
(ribfeiv, GU)T7)pia, awTTjptov, 

dvao~d)£eiv, diacrtbfeiv 
Ka\6v Troieiv, dyadfoeip, dp4- 

o~k€lv, (HtXTtop iroieiv, eS 

Troieiv 
irardaffeiv, rvirreiv, k6ttt€lv, 

KaratcdirTeiv, iKKbtrTeiv, 

iraleLP, Tr\r)o'<r€iv 
TrapopyLfav, irapaTUKpaiveiv, 

irapotyveiv 
iropetieadai oiricrw 
vrpecpeiv, dvao~Tpe'<peiv, diro- 

<TTpe<peiv, eKarptcpeiv, p.era- 

GTpkcpetv, aWdcrcreiv 



idols 



rebuke 



speak 



word, utterance 

pestilence 

generation 

judge 

weak, poor 

knowledge 



seek, consult 



hear, listen 
vanity (= idols) 



avail, profit 
deliver, save 

do good to, deal well with 



smite, destroy 



vex, provoke to anger 

walk after 
turn 



APPENDIXES 



131 



- T 

onn 

nn 

rnnnton 

nnT 

~ T 
- T 



mat 



TT 



Q27T 



D?T 



W ' 

-T 

"bin 



ei-aipeiv, pti&rBai, iic<rirap, 

airoKTeLveiv ,avaipetv ,dv7]<x neiv 
(Isa. 14:19), Karacrfpdfav 
(Zech. Ii:5), dcLVCLTOVV, 

airoKhTeiv (Ezek. 21: 16) 
KaraaKdiTTeiv, KaracrpecpeLv, 

p-qyvivai (Ezra 38 : 20) 
8pos, opeivds 
TpocrKvvecv, Kara.(p<.\eii> 

(1 Kings 2 119) 
dveiv, 6v<rid£eiv, dvfxidv, 

dvpudfrlV, <T(pd^€iP, TTpOCT- 

<p£peiv (Deut. 17:1) 
dvcrLa, dv<rla<7p.a, 60p.a, dvfxi- 

ap.a, <r<pdyiov (Am. 5:25) 
vTreprjcpavos 
lxip.vf}<TKecrdai, dva,u.L/j.vri<TKeiv, 

p.vr)p.oveveLV, dvofxdfav 
diavoetcrdou, 7rovT]peve<Tdai 

(Deut. 19:19), eTriTidrip.i 

(Gen. 11:6), \a\eiv (Jer. 

4:28; 51:12), ivdv/j.€i<r9cu 

(Lam. 2:17), nrapardcaeLv 

(Zech. 1:6), iraparrjpeiv 
^ (Ps. 37:12) 
dcrifteia, dvop.ia, &p.a (Judg. 

20:6), &fJLfxa (Ezek. 24:13), 

dvbcria 
Tropvefciv, iiciropveijeiv 
d-rrudeiv, dirofTTpetpeiv (Hos. 

8:3), &TroTpij3eiv (Hos. 

8:5) 

opyrjv iirdyeiv, irapardacreLv 
(Mai. I =4), virepeideiv 
(Zech. 1:12), dvp.ov<xdai 

opy-fi, ci7reiAiJ (Hab. 3:12), 
ip.[3 pi p.T)p.a (Lam. 2:6), 
irtKpia (Jer. 15 : 17), dirai- 
8eva-ia (Hos. 7 :i6) 

z=6ir\6p.axos (Isa. 13:5) 

diacrKopTrifeiv, (ncopirlfeiv, 
biaGirelpeiv, \iKp.av 

ffireipeiv, KaTacrireLp€iv,<rTropd, 
airbpos 

fipaxluv 

voCkeveiv, wblveiv, u>5ZVas 

<ex €lv i "Kovtiv, dcrdeveiv, 

ddwdcrdai 



snatch away, rescue 
slay, destroy 

throw down, break down 

mountain, hill 

bow down, do obeisance 

to sacrifice 

sacrifice 

insolent, scornful 
remember 

purpose, devise 



plan, wickedness 

commit fornication 
reject, spurn 

be indignant 

indignation 



scatter, disperse 



sow 



arm, strength 
whirl, writhe 



132 



PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



oin 

njn 
nm 
■pin 

nb^b ptn 

' mm 

T 

fnrn 

awn 

T T 

atpn 



• T — 

bbn 
nbn 

- T 

nibn 

bttri 

■ T 

dot 

T T 

•pan 

fsn 
ph) 

:nn 
inn) 

T : T ' 

nnn 
n-in 



0e£5eo-#cu 

bpdv, ftTTTeadai, IdeTv, decopeiv 

bpQv 

6'pacm, 6'pa/ia, Trpo<pT]TeLa, 

virvos 

8pap.a, OeuiprjTbs, pijp.a, £\irls, 

erepos 
8pap.a, 6'pa<m 
ap,apT&i>eiv, e^ap-aprdveiv, ol8l- 

Keiv, £<pap.aprdveLv 
ap.apT[a, dvopia. 
dp.apria, dp.dpTi)p.a, dvopia, 

dvop,r)p.a, dcr^Seta (Ezek. 

33 : 14), d<rt(3r]p.a (Lam. 

4 :22), Kaicla (Jer. 15:13). 

Kapdia (Ps. 32 : 5), p.dTouos 

(1 Kings 16 :2) 
oi dp,apru}\oL, oi dpuxprdvuiv- 

res, ot dvopoi, oi aVe/3e?s 
piaiveiv, fiefirfKovv 
ivvirvidfecrOai, evoirviov Udetv, 

iv&irviop bpdv 
evtiirviov, virvos 
(peldecrdai, i\£eiv, iirLirodeiv, 

alperlfav (Mai. 3:17) 
do~4(3€ia, ddiKia, ddiicos, ade- 

ffla (Jer. 20 :8), dvopia. 
olxTeipeiv, i\4eiv, KaTaarevd- 

friv (Jer. 22:23) 

iXefjpUOV, OlKTtpp.0JV 

eXcos, dacaioo'ijpr) (Isa. 63 : 7), 

oiKTelprifM (Jer. 31 : 3) 
/3oi5Xeo"0cu, evdonetv, iiridvpeiv, 

d£\eiv, (3ov\eijeadai 
6£Kr)p.a, deXijrbs, £k\€ktos 

(Isa. 54 : 12), /3otfXe<r0cu 
to vbp.1p.0v, Trpbo-rayp-a, 5ikclL- 

ta/ia 
ipijpovv, eprjpos 
iprip.i>}<ns, eprjpios, £p-qp.ia, £77- 

pacria, K<xvp.a 
fju&x ai P a i pop.(pcua, £i0os, 

iyx^ipldtov 
4J-io~T&vai, Tp£p.eiv, £ic<po(3eiv, 

diroo-oPeiv (Jer. 7:33), 

dl(i)K€LV 



pity, have compassion 
behold, see a vision 
seer 



night-vision 
vision 

vision 
sin 

to sin 
sin 



sinners 

profane, defile 
dream 

dream 

spare, have compassion 

violence, wrong 

be gracious, shew favor 

gracious 

goodness, kindness, piety 

delight in 

pleasure, delight 

statute 

be waste, desolate 
waste, desolation 

sword 

tremble, be terrified 



APPENDIXES 



133 



mn 

» T 



■ho 

nsnn 

T : » 

nnn 






mm dv 
no-* 

- T 

yip? 

- T 

Dim 
nins 

T T 



opylfrcrdai, dvfiovadai, irapo- be angry 



nbDb 



HBb3 



803 



6/0777, 0uyu6s 

#m5os, 6veidi.o-p.6s, al<Tx^ v7 ) 
TTToeTv, (po^eicrdai, irapakieiv 

(Isa. 27 : 36), ikXelTeiv 

(Isa. 7 : 8) 
apir&fciv, drjpetieiv (Jer. 5 ! 6) 

p.0x6&V, KOTTiaV 

Ki/ptos <rafia<bd, Kvpios iravro- 
Kpar&p, 6 Kvpios 6 dyios 
(Isa. 14 127) 
i)p.4pa Kvplov, i)p.4pa rod nvplov 
iraudeveiv, vovdereiv, aireideiv 
ir\d<T<reiv, KarcHTKevdfav, ktL- 

£eiv, x^veueiv 
0oj3et<r0cu, aifiecrdai 
06jSos, ei><r£f3eia 

ffCJTTJpia, <T(tiTT)p 

(XiaT-fipiov, <r<aTr}pia 

ei/0i5s, eidvveiv, evdonetp (Hab. 

2:4), KdTopdovv, dpiffKeiu 
eidvs, 6p06s 
6p(pav6s, TTTioxfc 
56£a, Tifji-f) 

ipevdos, Kaicta, /xdraios 
avvreXeiv, iraveLV 
ffvvriXeia, <rvvT4\eia Kaipov, 

crvvTeXeiv 
= ets t4\os 
dripidfav, d.Tip.ov(T0ac f kclt- 

ai<Txv ve, ' v i KaTa\a\eTv, 

ej-ari/Aovv, ahx^veadai 
dripla, 6v€tdi<rp.6s, 6veidos, 

atffxvvv (Isa. 50 : 6), /3d- 

aavos 
0p6pos, dttppoi 
6vp.6s, 6/3717 
dtadiJKtiv diaride'vcu, diadijKtjv 

Tl64vtU 

dffdevetv, KOiriap, ddvvareiv 
(Isa. 8 : 13), ivtivat (Isa. 
3:8), trapakveiv (Isa. 
35 : 3). ir^vav (Jer. 31:9), 
Kara.va\l(TK€iv (Isa. 59:14) 



- anger 

reproach 

be shattered, dismayed 



tear, seize 

be afflicted, distressed 
know, perceive 
Jehovah of Hosts 



day of Jehovah 
discipline, chasten 
form, fashion 

to fear, reverence 
fear, reverence, piety 
salvation, deliverance 
deliverance, safety 
be upright 

right, just 
orphan 
glory 

lie, falsehood 
cause to cease, consume 
total destruction, annihi- 
lation 

insult, reproach, torment, 
revile 

insult, reproach 



throne 

vexation, anger 

cut, or make, a covenant 

stumble, stagger 



134 



PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



3?>5 


Kap8ia, ^ V XV, £irt6vfjila, dia- 
vota, vovs 


r heart, mind, will 


- T 


ixavddvetv, diddaxeiv, 8eiK- 
vvvai, 8i8axv 


learn, teach 


- T 


dirudeiv, dirodoKLfid^eiv, i^ov- 
deveiv, i&vdevovv 


reject 


T 


66pvj3os, dwwXeia, rdpaxos, 
rapaxv, ffiryxvcris, eK<yra- 
(Tis, iicXi/mia, dav/xacrrds 


tumult, confusion 


HDSntJ 

t •• : ~ 


KOLTacrTptcpeiv 


overthrow 


T 


TraibeLa 


discipline, correction 


T * 1 


irapavojxia, (Ps. 37:7), Sia- 
fiovkLOv (Ps. 10:2), iv(b- 
ttlov (Ps. 10:4), (3ov\ij 
(Ps. 21:12), di.a\oyi<TfjL6v 
(Ps. 139:20), pd£\vyp.a 
(Jer. 11:15), iyxdpw* 
(Jer. 23:20; 30:24), 6/3777 
(Jer. 51:11) 


purpose, device 


ntrra 


Spafia 


vision 



bltts^ 


CKdi'SaXoj', Trrdp-a, dcrdtveia, 


occasion of stumbling, 




/Sdcra^os, /c6Xa<ris 


stumbling-block 


~ T 


i£atpeiv 


preserve, escape 


ISDtl 


KOTTCTOS 


wailing 


T 


Icrx^s, (Borjdds, aKewtj, (3oT]deia 


stronghold, refuge, for 
tress 




ipyov, Troiyp-a, irolrjcns 


work, deed 


rasra 

T " _ 


0-7-77X77, o-rCXos (Jer. 43 : 13), 


pillow, massebah 



rrsna 






T T 



SEE 

- T 



v-rrSo-Tacris (Ezek. 26:11), 
#77*77 (Isa. 6 :I3) 

iproXij, ^vraX/xa, TrpGirrayixa, 
diKaiuifia (1 Kings 2:3), 
Kplais (Deut. 11:1), 0^77' 
(Deut. 28:9, 13) 

8pa<ris, 6pay.a, fr^is, OTTracr/a, 
etdos 

avdiardvai (Hos. 14:1), dp.e- 
XeZV (Jer. 4:17), aireidetv, 
TrapairiKpalveiP, dirwdtTv 
(Ezek. 5:6), fJLtjde elo-a- 
Koveiv (Isa. 1: 20), dcpicrd- 
vai (Ezek. 20 : 8) 

8pa<ns, pr/fxa, ftpaiia, Xrnip-a 

dXelcpeiv, xpleiv, Siaxpieiv, 
XPl<tt6s 

XP<-<tt6s 



commandment 



vision 



be rebellious, obstinate 



utterance, oracle, burden 
anoint 

anointed, Messiah 



APPENDIXES 



135 



T I 

we 

- T 

on? 
yt23 

- T 

no: 



op.? 

D P3} 
™p,= $ 

ns-o 

T I " 



nbo 



-no 



V » 



may 

T I V 



Kpifxa, icpi<ris, ducala/Aa, di- 

Kaiocrvpr], iic5iKrj<ns 
\4yeiv, (pdvcu 

TTHTTbs €?VCU,Tri<rT€V€LV, irlffTlP 

ttlcttSs, d^i6iri(TT0S 
fjioix^veiv, \xoi-ydu<xBa.i, /^ot%efa, 

7rpO(p7]T€V€lV 

irpCXpTJTrjS, ^€v80TTp0(f>TJT7jS 

aaXevetv, aeleiv, iZuTTaadat, 

(TvvaOpolfriv, \iKp.av, Kivetv 

■rrapaKaXeiu, fxerapoeiv, iXteiv 

iardvai, (pvreveiv, Kara(pv- 

T€V€IV 

crakd^eiv, diroaTaXd^eiv, iirt- 
fTktireiv (Ezek. 21 : 2, 7), 
8dKpv<ri K:\aleiv (Mic. 2 : 6) 

ddQos, dvalrios 

iicdiKeiv, ddipovv 



judgment, ordinance, 

justice 
utterance, oracle 
be faithful 

faithful 
commit adultery 

prophecy 

prophet, spokesman 
shake, quiver 

be sorry for, have com- 
passion on 
place, set up 

drop, discourse, prophesy 



clean, exempt, innocent 
avenge, take vengeance 



iK8lK7)(ris, diK-q, dvTairbdoais > vengeance 



iKTlWeiv, £icpi£ovv (Jer. I :lo), 
iK<rirdv (Am. 9:15), tforo- 
awav (Jer. 12:14), ^ K ~ 
k6tt€iv (Mic. 5:13), £&L- 
peiv (Jer. 12:17; 18:7) 

tfXews ylvevdcu, t'Xews elvai, 
IXdo-Kecrdcu, eviXareveiv, 
d<pi4vcu 

Kdirreiv 

dirudeiv, irapoiffrpdv (Hos. 
4:16), irapcKppoveiv (Zech. 
7:ll), dviJKOOs, diro<TTdTt)i 
(Isa. 30:1) 

dovXevetv, Xarpevetv, Kara- 
8ov\ovv 

SovXos, dov\rj, dovXet&v 

irapafialveLv, irapipx^o'Go-f; £y- 
KaTaXdweiv, irapairopeti- 
eadai 

6vp.6$, dpyij, 6pp.7]p,a 

p,6<rx°s> fioffxdpiov, 5d/*aXts, 
Potdtov (Jer. 50 : 11) 



appear (of God) 
pull up, root out 



pardon, forgive 



wail, lament 

be stubborn, rebellious 



serve, worship 

servant, worshipper 
transgress 



fury, arrogance 
calf (idol set up by Jero- 
boam) 



136 



PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



V? 



are 



or 

TT 

1337 

TT 



T T 



PW 



THE 




y»s 



PI?? 
TO* 5 



adi/cla, &8iicr]fLa, a/jLaprta, 
a/j.dpT7]ij.a (Isa. 59 :2 )> 
avofxla, dv6fM7)fxa, natcta 
(Jer. 13:22; 16:18), dffi- 
P&a (Ezek. 33 : 9) 
e^eyetpeiv, eyelpeiv, eireyelpeiv 
eyKaraXeiTreiv, KaTaKeiireiv 
dvopXa., adiKia, Trapdirruipa 
al(bv, aliivios, Si' aiuvos, els 
rbv cu'wra, 8la iravros, 
divvaos 

iiriTrjSevpLCLTa, epya 

Xaos, edvos, yivos 

airoKpivecrdai, viratcoveiv 

TCLTreivovv, KaKodv 

7rra>x6s, TrepT/s, Taireivbs, 
j. 
irpavs 

Ta7T€tj'wcrts,/c(£Ka>(rij,7rrwx€^a, 

Trivia, dSvvrj, 6\tyis 
dStKety, dXLfieiv, Karabwaa- 

revetv 
\vrpovv, pveadai (Isa. 50 : 2), 

awdyeiv (Isa. 35 : 10), 

cibfav (Isa. I : 27) 
</>o/3eta0ai, SeiXidv, ei;i<TT d<rdai 
(pbfios, eK<rra<TLS f rp6p.os 
y\virrbv, etboKov, eludiv, 

dyaXfxa, irepi.pup.iov, 

y\vp.p.a 
iiricTK^TrTetv, iic8i.Keip 
daefietv, ddireiv, dvop.eiv, 

dcpiardvai 
do'e'Peux, dvop.la, irapd7rTb)p.a, 

afiapria (Isa. 53 : 5), ap.dp- 

T7jp,a (Isa. 58:1; Lam. 

I :22), dSiula (Ezek. 

18:22) 

SlKCUOffVVI) 

SUatoi, evo-ePijs (Isa. 24 : 16; 
26:7) 



guilt, iniquity 



1 



arouse, awake 
leave, forsake 
injustice, unrighteousness 
long duration, antiquity, 
futurity 

deeds, designs, evil doings 

people, nation 

answer, respond 

be bowed down, afflicted 

poor, afflicted, meek 
affliction, poverty 

oppress, extort 

ransom, redeem 



be in awe, dread 
awe, dread 

idol, image 

visit upon, punish 
rebel, transgress 

rebellion, transgression 



HttSJ dvaroX-fi 
— * 

YZLp avvdyetv, evvadpolfciv, ddpol- 
fciv, iiriarvvdyeiv 



Tightness, righteousness 
just, righteous 

branch, or sprout (in Mes- 
sianic sense) 
adversary, enemy 
gather, collect 



APPENDIXES 



137 



n5n 



*"Qp ddirretv, Karopvcrcreiv 

TEHp ajLos, dyiacr/xa, ayidfav, 

dyioafivr) 
TEfTlp (X710S, Kadapbs, r/yiao-fitvos 
!"Pp eXirifav, irddeiv (Isa. 33 :2), 

7re7roi^cJ>s efvat (Isa. 8 :I7), 

/xiveiv, VTTO/Jiivetv, dva/xeveiv 

(Tsa. 59:11), <rvvdye<rdat. 

(Jer. 8:15) 
JlS^p dprjvos 
HN2p fijXos 
fc$"p /caXeZV, updfav, fioav, Ktjpij<r- 

aeiv 
y^p biapp-qyvtivai., 5cappr)crcreiv, 

py\yvivai, axi^eiv 
V5^ dwrraifeij', Kond^evQai, kol- 

ixaadat, KaraXtieiv, vifxetv 
TVF] irvevp.a, irvor) 
^*H biKa^eiv, npiveiv, Xoidopeiv, 

fxdx^<ydai 
n* 1 *! dindl'eiv, dcadiicdfeiv, VTrepbi- 

Kd'$ei.v 

XuuSs 

n^*"l TrocfidveLV, (36<TKeiv, vep.eiv, 

Tpe<f>eiv, Troifirjv, iroip.7)vii(6s 

y*l KaKOUP, TTOPrjpetieo-Oai, ncticbv, 

KaKia, irovTjpbs yiyveadai, 

irovrjpbs elvai 

2?"3 ) Trovripla, KaKia, iroprjpbs, 

niTI \ /ca/cos 

XT'' 

37^ /ca/c6s, irovrjpbs, KaKia, al&xpbs 
2?^ KaKia, iroPTjpia, KaKovv, irovrj- 
pbs, alaxpbs 
i$S*l iacrdai, larpetieiv, ptieadai, 

iarpbs 
yiP"! ) dvop.ia, &vop.o?, daifieLa, 
n^ffiS \ dcreSrjs 
yti)H dvofios, ap.apT(i)\bs, do-eftr)? 
y©1 d<re/3etV, d<rej3ijs 
^2.1^ pMreiv 
b'ltftij pSt/s, ddvaros (Isa. 28 : 15) 

l^li) KaT(£Xot7ros, /cardXei/A/Aa, Xoi- 
7r6s 
FPl.XTi) /cardXoiTros, KardXeifx/xa, Xot- 
7r6s, virb\eip.fia, iyKard- 
Xei/Ayua 



bury 

sanctity, holiness 

sacred, holy 

wait for, expect, hope for 






elegy, dirge 

ardor, zeal, jealousy 

call, proclaim 

rend, tear 

lie down, rest, crouch 

spirit, breath 
strive, plead 

strife, dispute 

famine 

be shepherd, pasture, 

nourish 
be evil, bad 



misery, evil, distress 

bad, evil 
badness, evil 

heal, save 



wickedness 

wicked, criminal 

be wicked, act wickedly 

hate 

Sheol 

remnant 

remnant 



138 



PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



T T 

-aw 
■otp 

"HE 



fcOTE 

: T 

DM 

" T 

t t : 

- T 

rosin 
rnin 

nann 
nsn 



T t 



alxiJ-aXuTefeiv, /xerdyeLv, alx~ 
p-akwri^eiv, alxfJ-dXuiTos 

at'x/uaXaxri'a. aixP-dXcoTos, irpo- 

VOjAT), dirO(XTpO(p7J 

o~WTpL(3eiv 

<TVPTpi{3r), cnjprpLfxp.a, <tvv- 

rpip.p.bs 
oWtivai, e!;o\edpeiJ€w, 6Xe- 

dpeveiv, 6\e0po$, airoWvvcu, 

Tokaiirupe'iv, raXanrupia 
cnjvrpi.p.p.a, <rvvTpi/j.p.6s, 6Xe- 

6po$, Takcuirwpla 
fjLaraLorrjs, p-draios, fidrrju, 

xj/evdrjs, Kevbs 

i7TL(TTp4(f>€LV, dirOO~Tp£(peiV, 

dvao~rp£<f)€iv, virovrpicpeiv 
eTTiKavddveadaL 
epripLovadai, d<pavi£ecrdai, ii-i- 

GTaadai, davp-dfradcu 
a(pavi<Tp.b$, diruXeia, 6\edpos, 

aoLicrjTOS, '4pr)p.os 
icpiveip, diatcplveiv, 8ucd£eiv, 

CKdllCeiV, KptT7)S i dlKCLO'T'flS 

p8£\vy/ia, TpocroxOi.o'p.a 

xpevdos, ipevdrjs 

iiridvp-ia 

<rijve<ns, <pp6vr)(ris 

(38£Kvyp,a, dvop.la 

vbp.o%, £vTo\r), to vbp.ip.ov 

eXeos, dirjcris, Trpoffevxv 

ir\avc.adai 

i\irls, eveXiris, virop.ovrj 

coiTfjpia, auTripiov, Po7)d€t.a 



carry captive 



f- captivity 



J 



break, destroy, devastate 
breaking, destruction 

devastate 



devastation 

vanity, lie, evil 

turn, return 

forget 

be amazed, desolated 

desolation, waste 

judge 

abomination, idol 

lie, deceit 

desire 

understanding 

abomination 

direction, instruction 

favor, request for favor 

go astray, err 

hope 

deliverance, salvation 



APPENDIXES 139 

APPENDIX D. 

ANALYSIS OF THE HEXATEUCH. 1 

r Traces of editorial revision. ' In J or E lines — RJ e , in P line — R p „. 

Supplements from writers of the same school. " In J or E lines — R d . 
A period after a figure indicates the following verse ; e. g., 25. = 25-26. 

J g n^n^cic T o 4&-Q 15-25 -1-21 23 1 2b 166-24 c 2 9 £.1-4 

js vjenesis 1 2 IO _ I4 3 22 24 4 20 3-160 25. 5 ° 5-8 

p 1-3 1 1-40 1-28 30-32 9-22 

J g *7 9. n 2 °~ 27 

Js / 1-5 y-ior 12 166 176 22.r ° 6a 26-30 66-12 136 20-22 V 18a '6 19 

P 6 11 13-160 17a 18-21 24 1-20 36-5 13a 14-19 1-17 28. 

Jg 1-9 28-30 T »i-4« 6-8 °9 T .°i 2 5 66-na 

Js 1U x & 8-19 21 24-30 - 1 x x z 10-20 x 3 "3. 

P ia 2-7 20 22. 31. 10-27 31. 5 46 6a 116-120 

Jg T -126-13 18 T . J - 3. 6 7a '6 8-11 '12-15 I7~i8a '6 r 16-2 4-8 11-14 

Js 13 14-17 X 4 E J 5i.rs 16 "19-21 IO '9. 

P "1-24 P ia 3 15. 

J ^ T Qi-i6 "17-19 20-220 "226-330 336 Tr .i-28 30-38 _~ '18 _ T io 2fl 7 

El/ 1" 19 2^1-17 21 68-27 

P T-27 29 16 26-5 

J OT 28-30 33 00 '15-18 2o'a6-24 1-67 - "1-4 5 116 i8a°6'<r 

E21 31.34 22 I _ I3 ° I4 Ig 23 24 25 - 6 

P 1-20 7-1 ia 12-17 

J -. 21-25026028 o^ I_3 ° 6-14 16. 19-33 O> _io 2. 46 56-7a 15 186-20 

E 2^5 256 27 29-34 -^V '36-5 '15 '18 2/ !& 4a sa 76-14 16-180 21-23. 

P 19. 266 34. 

J ,-24-27 290c 300 c 316-34 4 I ^ _ 42 436 450 10 13-16 i9o'6 216 

E -^ / 28 296 306 31a 35 - 4 I « 430 44 456 ZO "• *7- 20-210 220 '6 

P '46 1-9 

J on 2-i4 26 31-35 -5 n 36-16 22C-230 24. 27 29-310 34-380 

E ■'Vi 15-23 25 2/-280 30 0^1-30 17-20 226 236 26 28 316-33 

P 24 286-29 '21 22a 

J 3 39-4ooc 41-43 _ 1 '3 '10 126 17-180 2527 31 43. 46 48 500 '6 

E 0^386 406 O l 2 4-9 n-i2<z 13-16 I 9 _ 24 26 28-30 32-42 45 47 '49 5i-55r 



J -, 3-70 136-220 236 24-29 31-320 °6 -1-17 26-30 c 5 7 

Eo^i- '76-12 130 23a 226 23c 30 jj 180 18C-20 34 

P 186 '1-20 '36 '4 '6 '8-10 

J - .11 19 26 296-31 r 1416-220 < 

E 34 3 5 1-4 66-8 3" 

P 12-18 '20-25 27-290 '5 60 9-120 '6 13a '6 15 226-29 10 '6-50 56-8 

'This analysis is reproduced from Carpenter and Battersby, The Hexateuch 
(1900), Vol. I, pp. 272-79. For a tabular presentation of the analyses of other 
scholars, e. g., Wellhausen and Cornill —see charts I— 14 at the end of Holzinger's 
Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893). For further literature on Hexateuchal criticism, 
see pp. 93, 96. 



140 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

APPENDIX D— Continued. 

J ~(L 32-39 ~j 26 2d~4 12-130 146 186 21 256-27 286 

E j u 0/ 5-11 136-140 '15-170 176-180 19.22-250 280 

P '9-28 29. '31 40-43 1-20 C 

J ~>j 320 336 35 -7Q I_ 3o ^ n i"4a 4^-566 76-23 (1 3 5 is)r . 14631 34 

E J / 28C-31 326-330 3436 O u jV 4& 60 c 70 4 u i-23 4 x 1-30 32. 

P 

J >• T 3S& 366 41-45^ 466 49 560 57 2 4. 70 c 27-280 38 

E4 1 35ac36o 37-40 47- So-55 566 4^13 6 8 90 76 96-26 29-35 286 36. 

P 456-460 

J A **-*3 15-34 a A J -34 A e ia 264-50C 9-11 13. 1906-210 28 ,/Cior 

e43 14 44 45 16-20 3 56^-8 12 15-18 216^-27 4° 2-4 16 50-6 

P 

J A (L 28-34 a<-i x ~^ 6b 12 ~27 a 29-31 .0 26 96-ioa 13-19 

e 4° 47 4°i-2o 8-90 106-12 20-22 

P 6. '8-27 5-60 7-11 276-28 3-6 '7 

J AC\ lb ~ 2 4 a 27 336 ro i-n 14 18 21 24. U . J 68-12 140 

E 49 '246-26 3^ 15-17 19.22.25. X^AUULlb 1 7 15-200 

P 10 18 28'fl 6-330 c 12. 1-5 13 146 

J 20622 _ 11-230 - 2-405 7-90 '14 16-18 /i 1-12 0l 3 -I 6 19-200 '21-23 

E A 21 -^i-io 01 466 96-13 15 '19.21. 4 17. 206 

P 236-25 

J .24-26 29-3I - 3 5-23 fc* fj 14 16-I7O 18 2IO 24. OI-48-I5O 

E 4 27. J1.4 u / !5 17& 206 23 <-> 

P 2-T2 I3-3O I-I3 I9-2OO 2l6-22 5-7 I56-I9 

J 020-32 .1-7 13 "i4 _I 6 17- 2 36 246 256-290 °6 °3o33- Tn io'i6-2 3r-n 

EO V 8-12 '19-21 22-230 240 250 31. 35r *-\J 12-130 

P 

J Tr >.i3& i4ft _I 5a I5C-I9 24-29 T 4-8 TO 210 "216-23 "25-270 276 29-34 

E A u 14a 156 20-23 1 A 1-3 l z 35- 

P 'o. 1-13' 14-20 24 28 

J to 37"39 T , 3<* 4 "5 6 °7- 10-13 e 21. 5. 100 11-14 

E A -^ x v) "30 9 14-16 17-19 A 4 7 90 106 150 

P '40-42 43-50 '51 1. 20 1-4 8 9&r 156 

J 196 206 216 240 25 276 286 30 _ -I 22-250 27 z' 

E I4i6o 100 20a 246 '31 A j'2-18 20. 256 '26 ilJ 4 

P 166-18 210 21C-23 26-270 280 '29 '19 1-3 '5 6. '8 

J tA t*7 3 26 nac _o '2-47 9-11 _ 

E 10 1/ 16-20 4-6768-16 lOir 5.8 12-27 *9 

P 9-140 15 'o 6-21 '22-30 31-35 36 10 20 1 



J '36-6 Il6-I3 l8 20-22 24. - n "2 "46-6 "76 "9. "126 "176 __ 

E IV26-30 7-110 14-17 19 '23 ^^13-40 70 8 120 13-170 18-26 *■ A 1-36 



P 



J '216-22 '24 _ '13 '156 '17 '19 '23-250 '27 '316-33 

E 2 2!- 2 ia 23 25-31 ^ji-90 '6 10-12 14-150 16 18 20-22 256-26 28-310 



P 



J _ .1.0-11 oc - m n ' 7_I 4 25-29 t 3-40 '6 

E 24 3-8 120 '6 13-150 186 -O J 1 186 5^1-6 15016-24 ° 30-34 35 OO a 

P 156-180 1 — 180 '156 



APPENDIXES 141 

APPENDIX D— Continued. 

J °i2-23 -.ir-S "6-9 100 "106-13 14 "i5- i7-i8a'6 19-23 25-28 , e , n 

E 33 '56-11 34 "24 29-33 '34- JJ 4 U 

P 1— 38 

E Leviticus 1 27 Numbers 1 i o 29 ' 33 35> 1 1 ^f Ioa Io6 ~ 12 I3 4 I5 i6. 

p 1 — 34 j — 28 34 

J 18-240 31-35 T 16 T ,- 176 186 19 22 27a 28 30. 

E -l ■!■ "246-30 J -^1-15 A O 17C-180 e 20-210 23. 266 276 29 33r 

P 1-170 216 25-260 32 

J . ic 3 8 96 11-24 31 41-45 T _, _/: id 13-140 *5 

E A 4 16 4 25 396-40 x J - 1 u ic 20 T2 14b 

P ia 2 5-79010 26-30 32-390 1-41 xa'b 26-7 '8-1 1 '16. 

J T £. 27C-31 33a T >7 or> 3« 5 86 19. 216 

E - 1 ^ 25 266 276 320 336 34 l I ■^■ KJ ib 14-18 210 220 

P 18-24 260 270 '326 '33c 35 '36-4041-50 1 — 10 2 36-4 6-8ac-i3 

J or . ot 1-3 l6_2 ° 2 4&-25 32 or> 3b~5ac-7 11 17. 

E ^^ ^ *■ 46-9 1 16-15 21-240 '26 27-31 "33-35 ^ ^ 2-30 56 8-10 12-16 19-21 

P 226-29 40 10 1 

J 22-34 35>" 36o 376 39 i '22. 28 0/l I_25 OC l6-2 36-4 /C ~fi 

E ^ ■* 366-370 38 40. z Ji-2i 24-26 '27 '29. ^^ z jw 3<J 5 -^ u O u 

P 6-18 1— 13 

ds Deuteronomy i ia » Z 5_ 2 4 - 7a - 7 & 8-30 '31-33 34-36 '37- 397-45 '46 2 i-6'7 s. 

JEP Pj 

Ds 2 10-12 13. '15 16-19 '20-23 24-37 3i _ 7 '8-1 1 12-130 '136 16 '17 18-29 4 1-4 5-40 
JEP Rp i 4 - 

Dg 45-49 r- I_ 4 '5 6-33 /;i-3 4-25 #71-26 01-20 -.1-17 21 26-29 

Ds 4 '44 5 ° 7 ° 9 18-20 22-25 

JEP Rp 41-43 

Dg ' t o IO "~ 22 t t I_32 t o I3_I S J 7-i9 "20-27 28-32 1-18 T . 3 

Ds i-0 1 - 5 g. A A 1^1-7 °8-i2 16 13 X 4i '24-210 

JEP E 6. 

Dg 216-29 T[ - I- 3 7-23 T /Ci- "3- 5-79-22 ,-i 8-160 1720 01-22 1-7 10-21 

Ds X 4 J 5 4-6 IO 8 I /2- 7 166 18. lO I9 8. 

JEP 

Dg or \ x ~ 2a 5-2o ~i-4 c 6-9 10-23 1-30 _°i-i2 15-25 0/1 i-7 "8. 10-15 "16 17-22 

Ds 2U 26-4 21 5 22 2 3 2 4 

JEP ■— -— 

Dg _ -1-16 "17-19 ^ 1-19 T7 Qi"25fl 27-34 38-40 

Ds ^0 ^U ^/°i-4 °7&-8 9- "11-13 '14-26 2 256-26.^:35 '36. 41. 

JEP E 5 -7fl 

gg r, 043-46 1-6 8-IO --. 9-13 

Ds ^O 47-57 58-68 ^Vi-28 '29 3S> '7/5 11-20 3 X 1-6 '7. 16-22 24-29 v 3o 

JEP E 14. E 23 

Dg 1 9 ^ -? "5 -5 /I Ic * r 4 

D« 0^1-43 44-47 E 501-20 '26-5 6-25 '26-29 J)4 16 "2.50 6r "10-12 

JEP P 48-52 \a ic 56 7-9 



142 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

APPENDIX D— Continued. 

J 2-30 c 46—5068—90 12 136—14 17 iSar c 19—21 

E TncKno t 1 ' 10-na i 364a 567 13a 15. 186 22-240 

DsJObllUd I 3 h5 =7.9 116-18 2 96-11 

ps 

J za cr 5 9-100 nr xy 17a sbr 6-70 86r 106-11 i8r 

E ,_ . 16 2. 6 12 14 . 16-30 4. 20 

Ds-^-24i 3 4^7 106 176 4-ia 9-ioa \ir 14 21-24 

P s 4a 8 15. 76-80 13 15-17 19 

J 2. 9 13-15 2. 7a 10-120 i4.r 166-170 "6 2oac2i 25. 2-26r 

E r /-I 4-6 76-9 126-13 l6fl 2c6 22-24T „_ 

Ds 5i4 "5 6-8 D 18 27 7 

Ps 10-12 19 1 

J ior 26-80 9-11 14-17 i9~23r 25 29 4.66-7 116-14 156 16b d 

E o 12 13 18 24r 26 -360 8-90 no 150 160 c 

I)s O 16-20 86 27. 30-35 V 96-10 

Ps 1. 15c 17-21 

J 226—23 26. r wrc2. 56— 60 c 70 9 106 i2r— 14 16— 24r 26. 14—9 

E 220 16 4-50 66 d too n 

X)s 9 24. 1U 76-8 15 2528-43 1 1 2. 10-23 i2 i-24 

Ps 

J 1 7 13 14-19 63 1-3 10 

E /£ 

Ds I 3 2-6 8-12 I4T 1 4 6-15 J 5 * " 

Ps I5-2IO '2l6-22 23-32 '33 1-5 I— 12 13 20-62 4-8 '9 

J n-18 47 

gsl7 l8 '2-6r 8-100 ig 2Q 

Ps 10 16-2 3. '5. 789. 1 '7 '106 11-28 1-46 48-51 1-3 '4 5r-g 

J 

E OT 00 o "> 0/l I_I2r !4-3or32. 

Ds2I 43 _ 45 2 2^ « 7a -j_ 8 2 0l _ l6 24 I3 3I 

P s 1-10 'n 12-42 0-34 



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